Notes on Through the Eyes of Travelers - Perceptions of Society CBSE Class 12th Themes in Indian History- Part II (Medieval India)

Notes on Through the Eyes of Travelers - Perceptions of Society CBSE Class 12th Themes in Indian History- Part II (Medieval India)

(c. tenth to seventeenth century)

Foreign Travelers to India in the Medieval Period

During the medieval period, many foreign travelers visited India for various reasons such as trade, learning, exploration, or as part of military invasions. Their accounts provide valuable insights into different aspects of Indian civilization—from social and economic conditions to architectural achievements and religious practices.

Al-Biruni: The Great Scholar

• Al-Biruni was a distinguished scholar from Central Asia, born on 4 September 973 in Khwarizm (modern-day Uzbekistan). He arrived in India in the 11th century, during the invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni.
• Languages: Al-Biruni was proficient in Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, and Sanskrit.
• Major Work: His most notable contribution is his work, Kitab-ul-Hind (also known as Tarikh-ul-Hind or Tahqiq-ma-lil-Hind), which provides an in-depth look at Indian culture, religion, and society.
• Focus Areas: In his account, he explores the caste system, Indian economics, and other aspects of Hindu society, offering a unique perspective on the state of India during the medieval period.

Ibn Battuta: The Moroccan Traveler

• Ibn Battuta, born in Morocco, traveled for over thirty years across Asia, Africa, and Europe. His famous book, Rihla, was written after his return to Morocco in 1354.
• Significance of Rihla: Rihla is an invaluable source for understanding 14th-century India. It describes Indian cities, customs, religious practices, and the political landscape of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Assistance with Compilation: After his return to Morocco, Sultan Abu Iram appointed Ibijuzayy to assist Ibn Battuta in compiling his detailed account.

Francois Bernier: The French Traveler

• Francois Bernier was a French physician, philosopher, and historian who spent 12 years in India between 1656 and 1688.
• Main Work: His book Travels in the Mughal Court provides important observations about the Mughal Empire, Indian society, and economics.
• Key Observations:
• Detailed descriptions of Indian Kharkhenas (towns and agriculture), the land ownership system, and social practices like sati (the practice of a widow self-immolating on her husband’s funeral pyre).

Abdur Razzaq: The Iranian Scholar

• Abdur Razzaq, born in 1413, was an Iranian scholar who visited India in the 15th century during the reign of the Timurid Empire.
• Career: He was appointed the Qazi of Samarqand under Shah Rokh Khan and traveled to India during the reign of Sultan Mahmud of Delhi.
• Accounts: His accounts provide insights into the Mughal Empire and Indian religious practices, though less is known compared to the other travelers.

Importance of These Accounts

The accounts left by these travelers serve as crucial historical documents, shedding light on:

• Religious life, including Hinduism, Islam, and other faiths in India.
• Economic conditions, revealing the prosperity and challenges faced by Indian society.
• Social systems, including the caste system and the practices of women and foreigners in India.
• Architecture and monuments, offering detailed descriptions of India's historical monuments and construction techniques.

In sum, the writings of these travelers provide a window into India's diverse and complex culture, enriching our understanding of its society and civilization in the medieval period.

Al-Biruni and His Contributions to Understanding Indian Society

Al-Biruni (973–1048 CE) was a great scholar from Khwarizm (modern-day Uzbekistan) who is best known for his extensive studies of Indian culture, religion, and society. His most significant work, the Kitab-ul-Hind, remains a valuable source for understanding India during the medieval period.

Key Facts About Al-Biruni:

• Birth and Background: Born in 973 CE in Khwarizm, he was well-versed in languages like Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, Syriac, and Sanskrit. His linguistic proficiency allowed him to understand and study a wide range of Indian texts and practices.
• Journey to India: Al-Biruni arrived in Ghazni in 1017 after the invasion of Khwarizm by Mahmud of Ghazni, where he was taken as a hostage. However, over time, he developed a deep interest in India, its culture, and its philosophy.
• Notable Work: Kitab-ul-Hind (The Book of India), written in Arabic, provides a comprehensive study of India, covering various aspects of Indian society, culture, and religion.

Kitab-ul-Hind:

• Content: The text is a voluminous work, comprising 80 chapters. It covers:
• Religion and philosophy,
• Festivals and social life,
• Astronomy and alchemy,
• Manners and customs,
• Weights and measures,
• Iconography (images and symbols used in religious worship),
• Laws and metrology.
• Al-Biruni used Sanskrit, Pali, and Prakrit texts in his research and compared them with Arabic texts, aiming to improve the quality of translations and better understand the cultural and religious context.

Al-Biruni's Views on Indian Society:

• Cultural Differences: Al-Biruni recognized the vast cultural differences between Indian society and the Islamic world. He pointed out the difficulties in translating ideas and concepts from Sanskrit into Arabic and Persian, as the languages were structurally and culturally distinct.
• Caste System: He explored the caste system and attempted to explain it by comparing it to social divisions in other societies. Al-Biruni acknowledged the hierarchical divisions in Indian society but noted that the caste system was not as rigid in practice as it appeared in Sanskrit texts.
• He mentioned the Vedas, Puranas, and other religious texts as sources of the caste system but emphasized that, in real life, there were nuances and flexibility.

Contributions to Indian Studies:

• Al-Biruni’s work helped bridge the cultural gap between the Islamic world and India. His critical analysis of Indian philosophy, religion, and social structures was far ahead of its time.
• He depended heavily on classical Indian texts such as the Vedas, Manusmriti, Bhagavad Gita, and the works of Patanjali for his research.

Al-Biruni’s objective and critical approach provides a detailed view of medieval Indian society, making his work a valuable resource for historians and scholars today. His Kitab-ul-Hind offers profound insights into the religious, social, and philosophical systems of India, often dispelling myths and misinterpretations about the country from an outsider's perspective.

Ibn Battuta and His Book Rihla:

Ibn Battuta, one of the most famous travelers and scholars of the 14th century, is renowned for his detailed accounts of his extensive travels across the world. His book, Rihla, written in Arabic, provides rich insights into the social, cultural, and economic life of the places he visited, particularly in the Indian subcontinent.

Key Facts about Ibn Battuta:

1. Early Travels:
• Before arriving in India, Ibn Battuta traveled extensively across Syria, Iraq, Persia, Yemen, Oman, Mecca, and parts of East Africa.
• His journeys also took him to China, Bengal, Assam, Sri Lanka, Sumatra, and Maldives.
2. Arrival in Delhi:
• When Ibn Battuta arrived in Delhi, the Sultan of Delhi, Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, appointed him as the qazi (judge) of the city. He was impressed by Ibn Battuta’s scholarship and trusted his expertise.
3. Challenges During Travel:
• Ibn Battuta's journeys were not without risks. He faced numerous attacks by robbers and was even wounded during his travels. Nevertheless, he persevered and recorded his experiences and observations in detail.

Ibn Battuta’s Description of Indian Society:

Ibn Battuta’s description of 14th-century Indian society is one of the most valuable historical accounts of the time. His observations cover a variety of aspects:

1. Urban Life:
• He described Indian cities as densely populated and prosperous. Delhi, which was the capital of the Delhi Sultanate, was the largest city in India. He also admired Daulatabad (in Maharashtra), describing it as another important and bustling city.
• The bazaars (markets) were not only centers for economic transactions but also cultural hubs. These markets featured spaces for public performances by dancers, musicians, and singers.
2. Agriculture:
• Ibn Battuta praised Indian agriculture for its high productivity, mainly due to the fertile soil. He noted that Indian farmers were able to cultivate two crops a year, enhancing the region’s agricultural output.
3. Manufacturing and Trade:
• He observed the flourishing of Indian manufacturing, particularly in the textile industry. Indian products, especially cotton cloth, fine muslins, silks, brocade, and satin, were highly sought after and in great demand across West Asia and Southeast Asia.
• This was part of a larger inter-Asian trade network, where merchants and artisans profited from exporting Indian goods.
4. Postal System:
• Ibn Battuta was impressed by the efficiency of the Indian postal system, which consisted of two types:
• Horse-post (uluq): For faster communication.
• Foot-post (dawa): For regular communication.
5. Cultural and Social Observations:
• Ibn Battuta offered unique descriptions of unfamiliar aspects of Indian life. For instance, he explained the significance of coconut and paan (betel leaf), which were unfamiliar to him and many readers of his time.

Conclusion:

Ibn Battuta’s account, Rihla, serves as a rich and invaluable source for understanding life in the 14th-century Indian subcontinent. His observations about Indian cities, trade, agriculture, and culture provide a unique perspective on the period and its global connections. His accounts are particularly important for understanding the social, economic, and cultural dynamics of the time, contributing significantly to historical knowledge about the medieval world.

François Bernier: A French Traveler and His Insights on Mughal India

François Bernier, a French doctor, political philosopher, and historian, spent twelve years in India between 1656 and 1668, during which he was closely associated with the Mughal court. His observations, recorded in his work Travels in the Mughal Empire, offer a detailed account of Indian society in the 17th century, often comparing it with Europe, particularly France.

Key Facts About François Bernier:

• Background: Bernier was a French doctor and a philosopher. His time in India was spent primarily under the Mughal emperors, particularly during Shah Jahan's and Aurangzeb's reigns.
• Duration in India: He spent 12 years (from 1656 to 1668) in India, traveling across various parts of the subcontinent.
• Publication: His book, Travels in the Mughal Empire, was published in 1670-71 in France and was translated into several languages, including English, Dutch, German, and Italian.

Bernier’s Views on Contemporary Indian Society:

1. Comparison with Europe:
• Bernier's writings are marked by detailed observations and critical insights, often comparing India with contemporary Europe, particularly France. His works highlight his perception that European society was superior to that of Mughal India, emphasizing the economic, political, and social differences between the two regions.
2. Crown Ownership of Land:
• According to Bernier, land ownership in Mughal India was vested entirely in the Mughal emperor, who would distribute it among his nobles. He argued that this crown ownership system resulted in economic ruin because landholders had no legal right to pass land down to their children. This discouraged investment in land improvement and agricultural production.
• This system, he believed, contributed to a lack of social mobility, with no middle class existing between the poorest and the richest. His famous line, "There is no middle state in India," highlighted the rigid social structure.
3. Impact on Agriculture:
• Bernier argued that the crown ownership system led to poor agricultural conditions, as the peasants were exploited by the nobles and landholders who had no long-term investment in improving the land. The living standards of the majority of the population, especially peasants, suffered as a result.
4. Social Structure and Class:
• He described Indian society as having a polarized class structure, with a stark division between the wealthiest and the poorest. He observed that there were no significant middle classes to bridge this gap.
• In contrast, he viewed Mughal kings as rulers of a society where beggars and barbarians dominated, a portrayal influenced by his negative view of the social structure.
5. Artisans and Manufacturing:
• Bernier observed that Indian artisans lacked incentives to improve the quality of their products, as profits were appropriated by the state. The craftsmanship in India, although abundant, did not encourage innovation due to the state's control over production and profits.
6. Trade and Economic Exchange:
• He noted that India’s manufacturing sector was integrated into the global trade network, with goods being exchanged for precious metals like gold and silver from regions outside the subcontinent.
• This trade was an essential part of the Indian economy, with various manufactured goods being in demand in West Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe.
7. Urban Life in India:
• According to Bernier, India had various types of towns: manufacturing towns, trading towns, port-towns, sacred centres, and pilgrimage towns.
• Urban society was diverse, with groups such as mahajans, sheths, nagarsheths, hakims, vaid, pundits, mullas, as well as artists, architects, musicians, and calligraphers contributing to the cultural and economic life of the cities.

Bernier’s Legacy:

Bernier's writings had a profound influence on European views of India during the 17th and 18th centuries. His critical assessments of Mughal India were later used by other thinkers such as Montesquieu, who developed the idea of oriental despotism, and by Karl Marx in his concept of the Asiatic mode of production.

Conclusion:

Francois Bernier’s Travels in the Mughal Empire remains a key historical document, providing insight into 17th-century Indian society. While his views were shaped by European perceptions, they still offer valuable observations about the economic, political, and social structures of the Mughal Empire, particularly concerning the land ownership system, the social hierarchy, and the state’s influence on the economy.

Women Slaves, Sati, and Labourers in Medieval India

The accounts provided by travelers such as Ibn Battuta and Francois Bernier offer valuable insights into the lives of women, slaves, and laborers in medieval India, touching on aspects like slavery, the practice of Sati, and the role of women in labor.

Slavery in Medieval India:

• Slaves in the Market: Slavery was a recognized practice during the medieval period, with slaves openly traded in markets alongside other commodities like horses and camels. The social and economic roles of slaves varied, and their treatment differed based on the specific context and their masters.
• Differentiation Among Slaves: Ibn Battuta noted the significant differentiation among slaves, with some serving as domestic workers, while others had specialized roles, such as serving the Sultan or keeping watch on the nobles.
• Women Slaves: Female slaves played an essential role in the Sultan’s harem, often serving the royal household or performing domestic tasks. Their status was lower than that of free women, and they were seen as part of the household labor force.

The Practice of Sati:

• Sati: Francois Bernier provides an account of the practice of Sati, where a widow would immolate herself on her husband’s funeral pyre. He observed that while some women seemed to choose death cheerfully, others were forced into this practice, often under societal or familial pressure.
• Social Perceptions: The practice of Sati highlighted the patriarchal structure of society, where women were often bound by social norms and customs that restricted their freedom, even determining their fate after the death of a husband.

Women’s Labour:

• Agricultural Production: Women’s labor was crucial for both agricultural and non-agricultural production in medieval India. Women participated in a variety of tasks, from working in the fields to managing household affairs.
• Women in Commerce: Women from merchant families also participated actively in commercial activities, contributing to the economic life of their communities. Their involvement in trade and commerce was essential, especially in regions with flourishing markets.

Unnoticed Aspects in Travelers' Accounts:

• Although the accounts of travelers like Ibn Battuta and Bernier provide detailed observations on certain aspects of social life, there were many unnoticed aspects of women’s lives and roles in society. These travelers, primarily men from outside the subcontinent, often overlooked the nuanced dynamics of gender roles, women’s autonomy, and the complexity of labor systems in Indian society.

Conclusion:

The accounts of slavery, Sati, and women’s labor reflect important socio-cultural practices in medieval India, but they also reveal the limitations of the travelers’ perspectives. The patriarchal system, social expectations, and economic roles of women were vital to understanding the intricacies of Indian society at the time. However, much of women’s lived experiences, agency, and contributions were not fully captured by these external observers.

Some Travelers who visited India and Left Accounts

Here is a list of travelers who visited India and left valuable accounts of their observations, categorized by the century in which they lived:

Tenth–Eleventh Centuries:

• 973–1048: Muhammad ibn Ahmad Abu Raihan al-Biruni (from Uzbekistan)
• Known for his work Kitab-ul-Hind, al-Biruni documented various aspects of Indian society, culture, and religion during his stay in India.

Thirteenth Century:

• 1254–1323: Marco Polo (from Italy)
• Though his travels did not directly take him across India, Marco Polo’s accounts of the lands he visited in Asia provide important insights into the interactions between Europe and the Indian subcontinent during the medieval period.

Fourteenth Century:

• 1304–1377: Ibn Battuta (from Morocco)
• Ibn Battuta spent several years in India, serving as a judge at the court of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. His book Rihla offers an in-depth look at Indian society during the 14th century.

Fifteenth Century:

• 1413–1482: Abd al-Razzaq Kamal al-Din ibn Ishaq al-Samarqandi (from Samarqand)
• A Persian diplomat who visited the Vijayanagara Empire and documented the socio-political and religious climate of South India.
• 1466–1472: Afanasii Nikitich Nikitin (from Russia)
• A Russian traveler who journeyed to India, particularly to the regions of the Deccan, and his writings offer insights into the lives of traders and the cultural interactions between India and the Russian world.

Sixteenth Century:

• 1518: Duarte Barbosa, d.1521 (from Portugal)
• A Portuguese traveler whose book The Book of Duarte Barbosa gives a detailed account of the ports and commercial life in India during the early years of European presence.
• 1562: Seydi Ali Reis (from Turkey)
• A Turkish traveler whose experiences and observations provided information about the Ottoman Empire’s relationship with India and the wider Indian Ocean world.
• 1562: Antonio Monserrate (from Spain)
• A Jesuit missionary who traveled to India and wrote about the Mughal Empire and its court, offering a European perspective on Mughal India.

Seventeenth Century:

• 1626–1631: Mahmud Wali Balkhi (from Balkh)
• A traveler from Central Asia who explored northern India and wrote about the political and social landscape during the early Mughal period.
• 1600–1667: Peter Mundy (from England)
• An English traveler whose accounts provide details about trade, governance, and the cultural life in India during the early years of British involvement in the subcontinent.
• 1605–1689: Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (from France)
• A French gem merchant and traveler who documented his travels extensively in his book Travels in India, describing the Mughal Empire and the diamond trade.
• 1620–1688: François Bernier (from France)
• A French physician and philosopher who spent time at the Mughal court, providing a detailed account of the social, political, and economic life of Mughal India in his book Travels in the Mughal Empire.

These travelers, through their observations, helped shape the understanding of Indian society, culture, economy, and politics from a foreign perspective. Their writings serve as important historical sources, enriching the knowledge of India’s past.