Notes on Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Cultural Developments CBSE Class 12th Themes in Indian History-I

Cultural Development (c. 600 BCE – 600 CE)

The period from 600 BCE to 600 CE saw remarkable cultural growth in India, with developments in religion, architecture, literature, and philosophy.

1. Architecture and Monumental Heritage

Sanchi and Kannakkheda

• The Sanchi Stupa, located in modern Madhya Pradesh, is one of the finest examples of Buddhist architecture.
• Kannakkheda, another ancient site in Bhopal, also features impressive religious monuments.
• Shahjahan Begum and Sultan Jahan Begum, rulers of Bhopal, played a crucial role in preserving these ancient sites.

2. Religious Texts and Beliefs

Hinduism

• The Rigveda, composed around 1500-1200 BCE, is a collection of hymns praising deities such as Agni (fire god), Indra (warrior god), and Soma (divine drink).
• Vaishnavism (worship of Vishnu) and Shaivism (worship of Shiva) emerged as two major traditions in Hinduism.

Jainism

• Jain philosophy existed even before Vardhamana Mahavira (599-527 BCE).
• Mahavira is regarded as the 24th Tirthankara, who formalized Jain teachings such as non-violence (ahimsa) and renunciation.

Buddhism

• Gautama Buddha (c. 563-483 BCE) was one of the most influential teachers of his time.
• His teachings emphasized the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, promoting ethical living, meditation, and wisdom.

3. Cultural and Philosophical Impact

• Buddhism and Jainism challenged the dominance of Brahmanical traditions and introduced new ideas of equality and morality.
• Indian culture and religion spread to regions like Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and Central Asia.

This period laid the foundation for the spiritual and artistic legacy of Indian civilization.

Glimpse of Sanchi

• In the 19th century, European scholars took a keen interest in the Sanchi Stupa and its historical significance.
• The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum, played a crucial role in funding the preservation of this ancient site.
• Sanchi is one of the most significant Buddhist centers, and its discovery has greatly enhanced our understanding of early Buddhism.
• Today, Sanchi Stupa stands as a symbol of successful restoration and conservation, managed by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

The Mid-First Millennium BCE: A Turning Point in World History

The mid-first millennium BCE is often regarded as a crucial turning point in world history due to significant intellectual, social, and political transformations.

• This period witnessed the emergence of great thinkers who sought to understand the mysteries of existence and the relationship between human beings and the cosmic order. These intellectual developments shaped philosophical and religious traditions across different civilizations.
• In India, this era saw the rise of new kingdoms and cities, particularly in the Ganga valley, where social and economic structures were rapidly evolving.
• The early Vedic traditions, as recorded in the Rigveda (compiled between c.1500 and 1000 BCE), played a crucial role in shaping religious beliefs and practices. The Rigveda consisted of hymns that were chanted during sacrificial rituals, where people prayed for cattle, sons, good health, and longevity.
• The transformations during this period laid the foundation for major religious, philosophical, and socio-political developments that influenced later Indian history.

Sacrifices in Early Indian Tradition

• Initially, sacrifices were performed collectively, involving the participation of the community. However, from c. 1000 BCE to 500 BCE, some sacrifices began to be conducted by the heads of households for the well-being of their families.
• More elaborate sacrifices, such as the rajasuya (royal consecration) and ashvamedha (horse sacrifice), were reserved for chiefs and kings. These rulers relied on Brahmana priests to perform these grand rituals, which symbolized power and divine legitimacy.

Philosophical Reflections on Sacrifices

• From the sixth century BCE onwards, many ideas in the Upanishads reflected a shift in religious thought. People started questioning the meaning of life, the possibility of life after death, and the concept of rebirth.
• Thinkers sought to understand the ultimate reality (Brahman) beyond material existence.
• At the same time, non-Vedic traditions, such as Buddhism and Jainism, critiqued the sacrificial system, advocating alternative spiritual paths that emphasized personal ethics, meditation, and self-realization.

This period marked a transition from ritualistic sacrifices to deeper philosophical and spiritual inquiries, shaping India's religious landscape.

Mahavira: The 24th Tirthankara of Jainism

Vardhamana Mahavira (c. 599 BCE – 527 BCE) was the 24th and last Tirthankara (spiritual teacher) of Jainism. He played a crucial role in shaping and spreading Jain philosophy.

Life and Teachings

• Born in Kundagrama (present-day Bihar) in a royal Kshatriya family.
• At the age of 30, he renounced his princely life and practiced severe penance and meditation for 12 years.
• Attained Kevala Jnana (supreme knowledge) under a sal tree at the age of 42.
• Spent the rest of his life preaching non-violence (Ahimsa), truth (Satya), non-stealing (Asteya), celibacy (Brahmacharya), and non-possessiveness (Aparigraha).

The Message of Mahavira and Jainism

• Core Beliefs:
• Animism: Jainism teaches that all living beings, from stones to water, possess life and consciousness. This view promotes a deep respect for all forms of life.
• Ahimsa (Non-Violence): One of the core principles of Jainism, ahimsa emphasizes not causing harm to any living being, which has had a profound impact on Indian thought and culture.
• Karma and Rebirth: According to Jaina teachings, the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara) is influenced by karma (actions). Every action, whether good or bad, creates karma that affects one's future lives.
• Asceticism and Penance: Jainism advocates asceticism (self-discipline) and penance as necessary steps to cleanse oneself from accumulated karma, ultimately leading to liberation (moksha). This requires renouncing worldly attachments and comforts.
• The Five Vows:
  Jain monks and nuns are required to take five vows that guide their conduct:

1. Non-violence (Ahimsa): Avoiding harm to any living being.

2. Truthfulness (Satya): Avoiding lies.

3. Non-stealing (Asteya): Not taking anything that is not given.

4. Celibacy (Brahmacharya): Abstaining from sexual relations.

5. Non-possession (Aparigraha): Renouncing material possessions.

• Spread and Influence:
  Jainism gradually spread across India, particularly in the regions of North India. Jain scholars produced a wealth of literature in Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Tamil, which played an important role in the preservation and dissemination of Jaina philosophy.

The principles of non-violence, asceticism, and karma from Mahavira’s teachings continue to resonate in Indian culture and thought, influencing individuals and communities committed to peace and ethical living.

Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama)

• Early Life:
  Siddhartha Gautama, later known as the Buddha, was born in the 6th century BCE in Lumbini (modern-day Nepal). He was born into a royal family of the Shakya clan. His father, King Suddhodana, sought to shield him from the harsh realities of life, providing him with a life of luxury and comfort in the palace.
• The Four Sights:
  Despite his father’s efforts to protect him, Siddhartha ventured outside the palace and encountered the Four Sights that deeply troubled him:
1. An old man – representing the reality of aging.
2. A sick man – symbolizing suffering.
3. A dead body – pointing to the inevitability of death.
4. A holy man – showing the path of spiritual awakening.

These experiences led him to question the meaning of life and suffering.

• Renunciation:
  At the age of 29, Siddhartha decided to leave his family and royal life to seek answers to his questions about suffering, existence, and the nature of life. He became an ascetic, spending years practicing severe self-discipline, meditation, and austerities.
• Enlightenment:
  After many years of searching, Siddhartha meditated under a Bodhi tree (tree of enlightenment) in Bodh Gaya. There, he attained enlightenment (Bodhi) and became the Buddha, which means “the awakened one.” He realized the nature of suffering and the path to overcome it.
• The Four Noble Truths:
  The Buddha’s enlightenment led him to articulate the Four Noble Truths, which form the foundation of his teachings:
1. Dukkha (Suffering): Life is full of suffering and dissatisfaction, whether it be physical or emotional.
2. Samudaya (Origin of Suffering): The cause of suffering is desire or craving (tanha), attachment, and ignorance.
3. Nirodha (Cessation of Suffering): It is possible to end suffering by eliminating its causes.
4. Magga (The Path to End Suffering): The path to the cessation of suffering is the Eightfold Path, which includes right understanding, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
• The Eightfold Path:
  This is the practical guide to ethical living and mental discipline, leading to wisdom, ethical conduct, and mental development. It is a way to end suffering and attain Nirvana, the cessation of desire, attachment, and suffering.
• Nirvana:
  Nirvana is the ultimate goal in Buddhism. It is the state of liberation and freedom from suffering and the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara). Achieving Nirvana means transcending all desires and attachments.
• Teaching and Spread:
  After his enlightenment, the Buddha spent the rest of his life teaching others about the path to liberation. His teachings were spread across India and beyond, laying the foundation for Buddhism as a major world religion.
• Buddhist Monastic Order:
  Buddha established a monastic community (Sangha) for monks and nuns to follow his teachings and practice the path of liberation. Both laypeople and monks could follow the path, though monks dedicated their lives entirely to it.
• Death:
  The Buddha passed away at the age of 80 in Kushinagar. His last words were, "All compounded things are subject to decay. Strive with diligence." He left behind a legacy of teachings that continue to inspire millions of people around the world.

The core of Buddha’s teachings revolves around the nature of suffering, its causes, and how one can free themselves from the cycle of rebirth and attain inner peace through wisdom, ethical conduct, and mental discipline.

Compilation of Buddha’s Teachings

None of Buddha’s speeches were written down during his lifetime. After his death (c. fifth-fourth century BCE), his disciples compiled his teachings through oral tradition.

• A council of elders (senior monks) was held at Vesali, where his teachings were formally collected and preserved.
• These teachings were memorized and passed down orally for generations before they were finally written down.
• The first written records of his teachings appeared several centuries later, in languages like Pali and Sanskrit, forming the foundation of Buddhist scriptures like the Tipitaka.

This process ensured the preservation and transmission of Buddhism across different regions and generations.

Buddhist Texts: The Tipitaka (Three Baskets)

The Tipitaka is the sacred collection of Buddhist scriptures, meaning "Three Baskets", as it categorizes teachings into different sections.

1. Vinaya Pitaka
• Contains rules and regulations for monks and nuns who joined the Sangha (monastic order).
• Establishes guidelines for monastic discipline and daily conduct.
2. Sutta Pitaka
• Includes the teachings of the Buddha, consisting of discourses (suttas) delivered by him.
• Covers ethical, philosophical, and meditative practices.
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka
• Deals with philosophical and psychological matters, analyzing Buddhist doctrines in a systematic way.
• Explores the nature of consciousness, mental states, and reality.

These texts form the foundation of Theravāda Buddhism and preserve the Buddha's teachings in their earliest recorded form.

Followers of the Buddha and the Formation of the Sangha

After the Buddha began teaching, he quickly gathered a group of devoted followers, many of whom became monks. These followers formed the Sangha, the monastic community that was central to the practice and spread of Buddhism. The members of the Sangha played a crucial role in preserving and teaching the Dhamma (the teachings of the Buddha) to others.

Monastic Life in the Sangha

• Simplicity: The monks of the Sangha led a life of simplicity, with very few material possessions. They lived on alms, which were provided by the lay community. This practice of accepting food once a day from the laity reinforced the idea of humility and non-attachment in Buddhist teachings.
• Bhikkhus: Monks were known as bhikkhus (meaning "beggar" or "one who lives on alms") and were committed to the path of renunciation. They were expected to practice discipline, meditate, and spread the teachings of the Buddha.

Admission of Women into the Sangha

• Ananda’s Mediation: Initially, the Buddha’s Sangha was composed exclusively of men. However, according to Buddhist texts, this changed after Ananda, one of the Buddha’s closest disciples and his cousin, requested that women be allowed to join the monastic community. His request was made with great respect and after careful consideration, leading to the Buddha’s agreement.
• Mahapajapati Gotami: The first woman to be ordained as a bhikkhuni (female monk) was Mahapajapati Gotami, the Buddha’s foster mother. She played a pivotal role in establishing the bhikkhuni sangha, the order of nuns.

Women in the Sangha

• Theris: Many women who joined the Sangha became respected teachers of the Dhamma and were known as theris. This term refers to respected elder nuns, much like the term "thera" for elder monks. These women made significant contributions to the spread of Buddhism and became revered as spiritual leaders in their own right.
• Role of Women: Women who joined the Sangha were not only devoted practitioners but also intellectual leaders. They taught the Dhamma, guided lay people in spiritual matters, and showed that women could be fully engaged in the spiritual life, achieving the same liberation as men.

Thus, the establishment of the bhikkhuni sangha represented an important development in the history of Buddhism, highlighting the inclusivity of the Buddha’s teachings and the recognition of women’s potential to attain enlightenment.

The Teachings of the Buddha

The Buddha’s teachings are primarily reconstructed from the stories and discourses found in the Sutta Pitaka, one of the three sections of the Tipitaka (the Buddhist canon). The Sutta Pitaka contains the Buddha’s discourses and serves as one of the most essential sources for understanding his philosophy, ethical guidance, and spiritual practices.

Here are some of the central elements of the Buddha's teachings as found in the Sutta Pitaka:

The Four Noble Truths

The core of the Buddha's teachings lies in the Four Noble Truths, which are:

1. Dukkha (Suffering): The first truth asserts that suffering is an inherent part of life. It manifests in birth, old age, sickness, and death, as well as in emotional and mental pain.
2. Samudaya (The Cause of Suffering): The second truth identifies the cause of suffering, which is desire or craving (tanha). This craving leads to attachment and thus suffering.
3. Nirodha (The End of Suffering): The third truth teaches that it is possible to end suffering by overcoming attachment and desire. This state is called nirvana, a state of liberation and peace.
4. Magga (The Path to End Suffering): The fourth truth outlines the path to the cessation of suffering—the Noble Eightfold Path.

The Noble Eightfold Path

This path consists of eight practices or principles that help individuals overcome suffering and achieve enlightenment. These are:

1. Right Understanding (Samma ditthi) - Understanding the nature of reality and the Four Noble Truths.
2. Right Intent (Samma sankappa) - Cultivating thoughts of kindness, compassion, and non-harm.
3. Right Speech (Samma vaca) - Speaking truthfully and kindly, avoiding lies, gossip, and harsh words.
4. Right Action (Samma kammanta) - Acting ethically by refraining from harm and committing to actions that promote well-being.
5. Right Livelihood (Samma ajiva) - Earning a living in a way that does not harm others or cause suffering.
6. Right Effort (Samma vayama) - Striving to develop wholesome qualities and abandon unwholesome ones.
7. Right Mindfulness (Samma sati) - Practicing mindfulness and awareness in every moment, especially in meditation.
8. Right Concentration (Samma samadhi) - Developing deep states of meditation, ultimately leading to profound insight and liberation.

The Doctrine of Anatta (Non-Self)

The Buddha taught that there is no permanent self (Atman) or soul in individuals. Instead, what we consider "self" is merely a combination of ever-changing physical and mental elements. This concept is central to understanding anatta (non-self) and emphasizes the impermanence and interconnectedness of all things.

Impermanence (Anicca)

The Buddha taught that all things are impermanent. Everything in the world, including our thoughts, feelings, and physical bodies, is subject to change. Recognizing the impermanence of life helps individuals reduce attachment and suffering.

Karma and Rebirth

The Buddha emphasized the concept of karma, the law of cause and effect. Every action, speech, and thought generates karma, which affects future experiences. Through positive actions, one can create favorable karma and move toward enlightenment. The cycle of rebirth (samsara) continues until one achieves nirvana, thus breaking the cycle.

Meditation and Mindfulness

The Buddha encouraged practices like meditation (dhyana) and mindfulness (sati) to cultivate awareness, concentration, and insight. Through meditation, one can directly experience the nature of reality and gain wisdom that leads to liberation.

The Sutta Pitaka

The Sutta Pitaka is a vast collection of texts, organized into five Nikayas (collections):

1. Digha Nikaya – Long discourses of the Buddha.
2. Majjhima Nikaya – Middle-length discourses.
3. Samyutta Nikaya – Connected discourses, grouped by topic.
4. Anguttara Nikaya – Numerical discourses, arranged by number.
5. Khuddaka Nikaya – Miscellaneous texts, including poems, stories, and the Dhammapada.

These texts provide direct access to the Buddha’s teachings and are crucial for understanding the path to liberation and wisdom.

Through the Sutta Pitaka and other Buddhist texts, the Buddha’s message of compassion, ethical conduct, mindfulness, and wisdom has been passed down for over two millennia, continuing to guide followers toward enlightenment.

Structure of a Stupa

The stupa, a key element of Buddhist architecture, originated as a simple semicircular mound of earth called the anda. Over time, the stupa evolved into a more complex structure with symbolic and architectural significance:

1. Anda (Mound): Initially, the stupa was just a mound of earth that symbolized the burial of relics, which were believed to hold the Buddha's spiritual presence.
2. Harmika: Above the mound, a structure called the harmika was built. This balcony-like platform was thought to represent the abode of the gods, symbolizing the divine realm. The harmika often enclosed the relic chamber, which contained sacred relics of the Buddha or important Buddhist figures.
3. Yashti (Mast): Rising from the harmika was a mast, or yashti, which symbolized the axis of the universe (Mount Meru) in Buddhist cosmology. It was often topped with an umbrella, called a chhatri, which symbolized royalty and protection.
4. Railing: Surrounding the stupa was a railing or vedika, which separated the sacred space of the stupa from the secular world. This also marked the boundary between the physical and spiritual realms, providing a space for meditation and worship.
5. Toranas (Gateways): Many stupas, particularly the ones at Sanchi, also featured toranas (elaborate gateways), which were richly adorned with carvings and symbols. These gatehouses provided access to the stupa and were often decorated with scenes from the Buddha's life or Jataka tales.

Sculpture

The sculpture at stupas like Sanchi is an essential feature of Buddhist art, often depicting significant events or stories from the life of the Buddha or important moral teachings. The sculptures at Sanchi are noted for their beauty and symbolic depth. One of the famous scenes represented in Sanchi is the Vessantara Jataka, which illustrates one of the Buddha's previous lives, showcasing the theme of generosity and selflessness.

Symbols in Early Buddhist Art

In early Buddhist art, the Buddha was not depicted in human form. Instead, artists used symbols to represent his presence and teachings:

1. The Empty Seat: The Buddha's meditation was symbolized by an empty throne or seat. This symbol represented his state of meditation or nirvana.
2. The Stupa: The stupa itself symbolized the mahaparinirvana of the Buddha, representing the Buddha’s death and the attainment of complete liberation from the cycle of rebirth.
3. The Wheel of Dharma (Dharmachakra): The wheel was one of the most prominent symbols in early Buddhist art. It symbolized the First Sermon of the Buddha, delivered at Sarnath. The wheel, with its eight spokes, also represents the Noble Eightfold Path, the key teaching of the Buddha that leads to the cessation of suffering.

Conclusion

The structure of the stupa and the sculptures surrounding it are rich in meaning, serving both as places of meditation and as symbols of the Buddha’s teachings. The early Buddhist practice of symbolizing the Buddha through objects like the wheel, seat, and stupa reflects the profound philosophical and spiritual concepts within Buddhism, such as impermanence, enlightenment, and the pursuit of liberation. These elements are not only architectural but also convey deep metaphysical ideas, making the stupa an enduring symbol of Buddhist thought and practice.

Popular Buddhist Traditions and Iconography

Buddhist art and traditions evolved over time, incorporating local beliefs, practices, and artistic motifs. Here are some of the key elements in Buddhist iconography and practices:

Shalabhanjika

One of the prominent motifs in Buddhist sculpture is the shalabhanjika, depicted as a beautiful woman swinging from the edge of a gateway and holding onto a tree. This figure is symbolic of a woman whose touch caused trees to flower and bear fruit. It is likely that the shalabhanjika symbol was considered auspicious and became integrated into the decoration of stupas and other Buddhist monuments. The inclusion of such motifs indicates the blending of Buddhist ideas with pre-existing local or non-Buddhist traditions.

Animal Motifs

Buddhist sculptures from places like Sanchi often depict various animals, including elephants, horses, monkeys, and cattle. These animals were more than decorative elements; they were symbolic representations. For example:

• Elephants were often used to symbolize strength and wisdom in Buddhist art.
• Other animals likely depicted stories from the Jataka tales, which are narratives from the Buddha's previous lives, many of which involve animals as protagonists.

Animals in these sculptures also served to make the scenes more lively and relatable for viewers, enriching the overall narrative and emotional impact of the art.

Other Motifs: Lotuses and Elephants

Another significant motif includes the image of a woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants, with the elephants sprinkling water on her. This scene was likely meant to symbolize purification and blessing, similar to the Hindu ritual of abhisheka or consecration. The presence of these elements indicates a crossover of Buddhist and local symbolic practices.

Serpent Motif

The serpent motif appears on several pillars in Buddhist architecture, representing protection and wisdom. It was associated with early tree and serpent worship, a practice that predates and influences later Buddhist iconography. James Fergusson, an early art historian, suggested that Sanchi may have been a center of tree and serpent worship, further integrating local traditions with emerging Buddhist practices.

New Religious Traditions: The Rise of Mahayana Buddhism

Early Buddhism emphasized self-effort as the path to nirvana, with the Buddha being seen as a human who attained enlightenment through his own efforts. However, over time, new ideas emerged within the Buddhist community:

1. The Concept of the Bodhisatta: This new belief introduced the idea of a Bodhisatta (or Bodhisattva), a being who accumulates merit, not for personal salvation, but to help others achieve enlightenment. Bodhisattvas are seen as deeply compassionate figures who delay their own nirvana in order to aid others in their spiritual journey.
2. Mahayana Buddhism: The development of the Bodhisattva concept was part of a broader shift in Buddhist thought, which led to the rise of Mahayana Buddhism. Mahayana, meaning "Great Vehicle", emphasized compassion and the collective liberation of all beings. In contrast, the older school of thought, focusing on individual effort and enlightenment, came to be known as Hinayana or the "Lesser Vehicle".
3. Worship of Images: As part of this shift, the worship of images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas became a central practice. Statues and representations of the Buddha were venerated, and these figures symbolized the enlightened ideal that followers aspired to emulate.
4. Influence of Saviour Figures: The idea of a saviour figure in Mahayana Buddhism paralleled similar developments in other religious traditions, including Vaishnavism and Shaivism in Hinduism, where there was an increased focus on the worship of chosen deities (like Vishnu or Shiva). These religious traditions began to emphasize the deity’s role in the salvation of devotees, marking a significant shift from earlier religious practices.

Conclusion

The evolution of Buddhist art and traditions shows how Buddhism adapted to and incorporated various local and pre-existing beliefs. Symbols like the shalabhanjika, animal motifs, and serpent images illustrate how Buddhist art served both as a medium for storytelling and a reflection of cultural integration. Meanwhile, the development of Mahayana Buddhism marked a pivotal shift towards a more inclusive and compassionate path, emphasizing the role of Bodhisattvas and image worship, which distinguished it from earlier forms of Buddhism and aligned it with similar trends in Hinduism.

Purani Hinduism and Early Temples

Vaishnavism and Shaivism: Devotional Traditions

Vaishnavism and Shaivism represent two prominent devotional traditions within Hinduism. Both emphasize the worship of a principal deity and a deep connection between the devotee and the divine, often visualized as a relationship based on love and devotion (bhakti).

• Vaishnavism: Focuses on the worship of Vishnu as the principal deity. Within this tradition, avatars (incarnations of Vishnu) play a significant role. Ten key avatars, known as the Dashavatara, are recognized, and different avatars are particularly popular in various parts of India. For example, Rama and Krishna are two of the most widely revered avatars.
• Shaivism: Centers around the worship of Shiva as the supreme god. In this tradition, Shiva is often symbolized by the linga – a simple yet profound representation of his presence.

These devotional practices emphasized a bond between the devotee and the deity based on deep affection, devotion, and surrender, which contrasted with earlier ritualistic practices that were more formal and sacrificial.

Representation through Symbols and Sculpture

The deities in both Vaishnavism and Shaivism are often represented in a symbolic form. For example:

• Shiva is commonly represented by the linga.
• Vishnu’s avatars are depicted in various forms across different regions of India. These depictions, whether in sculptures or paintings, convey complex theological concepts about the deities and their attributes.

The Puranas, which contain a wealth of mythological stories, cosmological descriptions, and genealogies, were instrumental in transmitting these ideas and images across regions. The interaction of different peoples, especially those traveling and exchanging ideas across the Indian subcontinent, played a crucial role in the development and spread of these traditions.

Early Temples in Hinduism

The development of Hindu temples marks an important evolution in the religious and architectural history of India. The early temples were relatively simple, but over time, they became more complex and elaborate.

• Garbhagriha (sanctum): The earliest temples typically consisted of a small square room called the garbhagriha, where the image of the deity was placed for worship. This space was designed to be the sanctuary of the temple, where devotees could offer prayers and worship directly to the deity’s image.
• Shikhara (spire): Over time, temples began to be crowned with a tall shikhara, or spire, symbolizing the spiritual ascent towards the divine. This architectural feature became a prominent characteristic of many later temples.
• Temple Complexes: As temple architecture evolved, larger and more elaborate structures were built. These included assembly halls, gateway structures, and large courtyards, often accompanied by sculptures and intricate carvings. Additionally, temples began to feature elaborate provisions for water supply, making them centers not just for worship but also for community and cultural activities.
• Cave Temples: One of the remarkable features of early temples is that many of them were hollowed out of rock, creating artificial caves. This tradition of carving temples out of rock dates back to the third century BCE during the reign of Emperor Ashoka, who commissioned caves for ascetics of the Ajivika sect. This practice evolved over time, and in the eighth century, grand rock-cut temples, like the Kailashnatha Temple dedicated to Shiva, were constructed.

The Evolution of Art and Sculpture

Early Indian sculpture often depicted gods and goddesses in highly stylized forms, some with multiple arms and heads or with combinations of human and animal features. While these figures might have seemed strange or grotesque to early European scholars, they were profound expressions of the divine in Indian art.

• Indo-Greek Influence: Scholars of the European Renaissance were particularly fascinated by the sculptures of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas, which were believed to have been influenced by Greek artistic styles. These sculptures, found in the northwestern parts of India, particularly in cities like Taxila and Peshawar, were created during the era of the Indo-Greek kingdoms (circa second century BCE). The Greek influence was particularly evident in the depictions of the Buddha, which incorporated classical Greek elements such as drapery and naturalistic features.
• Early Indian Art: Despite some scholars’ initial dismissiveness of Indian art, the Buddha sculptures from the northwest are often considered some of the finest early examples of Indian sculpture because of their Greek-inspired realism.

Conclusion

The evolution of Purani Hinduism and the development of temple architecture and sculpture reflect the complex and dynamic nature of religious practices in India. From the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism to the construction of rock-cut temples, the art and architecture of early Hinduism provided not only a space for worship but also a canvas for expressing complex theological concepts. As these traditions spread and evolved, they became enriched with local beliefs and ideas, leading to the vibrant diversity seen in Hinduism today.