Notes on Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Cultural Developments CBSE Class 12th Themes in Indian History-I
Notes on Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Cultural Developments CBSE Class 12th Themes in Indian History-I
Published on April, 16th 2025 Time To Read: 24 mins
Table of Contents
- Cultural Development (c. 600 BCE – 600 CE)
- Glimpse of Sanchi
- Sacrifices in Early Indian Tradition
- Mahavira: The 24th Tirthankara of Jainism
- Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama)
- Compilation of Buddha’s Teachings
- Followers of the Buddha and the Formation of the Sangha
- The Teachings of the Buddha
- Structure of a Stupa
- Popular Buddhist Traditions and Iconography
- Purani Hinduism and Early Temples
Cultural Development (c. 600 BCE – 600 CE)
The period from 600 BCE to 600 CE saw remarkable
cultural growth in India, with developments in religion,
architecture, literature, and philosophy.
1. Architecture and Monumental Heritage
Sanchi and Kannakkheda
- The Sanchi Stupa, located in modern Madhya
Pradesh, is one of the finest examples of Buddhist
architecture.
- Kannakkheda, another ancient site in
Bhopal, also features impressive religious
monuments.
- Shahjahan Begum and Sultan Jahan Begum,
rulers of Bhopal, played a crucial role in
preserving these ancient sites.
2. Religious Texts and Beliefs
Hinduism
- The Rigveda, composed around 1500-1200
BCE, is a collection of hymns praising deities
such as Agni (fire god), Indra (warrior god), and Soma (divine
drink).
- Vaishnavism (worship of Vishnu) and
Shaivism (worship of Shiva) emerged as two
major traditions in Hinduism.
Jainism
- Jain philosophy existed even before Vardhamana
Mahavira (599-527 BCE).
- Mahavira is regarded as the 24th
Tirthankara, who formalized Jain teachings such
as non-violence (ahimsa) and renunciation.
Buddhism
- Gautama Buddha (c. 563-483 BCE) was one of the most
influential teachers of his time.
- His teachings emphasized the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold
Path, promoting ethical living, meditation, and
wisdom.
3. Cultural and Philosophical Impact
- Buddhism and Jainism challenged the dominance of
Brahmanical traditions and introduced new ideas of
equality and morality.
- Indian culture and religion spread to regions like
Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and Central Asia.
This period laid the foundation for the spiritual and artistic
legacy of Indian civilization.
Glimpse of Sanchi
- In the 19th century, European scholars
took a keen interest in the Sanchi Stupa and its historical
significance.
- The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan
Begum, played a crucial role in funding the
preservation of this ancient site.
- Sanchi is one of the most significant Buddhist
centers, and its discovery has greatly enhanced our understanding
of early Buddhism.
- Today, Sanchi Stupa stands as a symbol of
successful restoration and conservation, managed by the
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
The Mid-First Millennium BCE: A Turning Point in World History
The mid-first millennium BCE is often regarded as a crucial turning
point in world history due to significant intellectual, social, and
political transformations.
- This period witnessed the emergence of great thinkers who
sought to understand the mysteries of existence and the
relationship between human beings and the cosmic order.
These intellectual developments shaped philosophical and religious
traditions across different civilizations.
- In India, this era saw the rise of new kingdoms and
cities, particularly in the Ganga valley, where
social and economic structures were rapidly evolving.
- The early Vedic traditions, as recorded in the
Rigveda (compiled between c.1500 and 1000
BCE), played a crucial role in shaping religious beliefs and
practices. The Rigveda consisted of hymns that were chanted during
sacrificial rituals, where people prayed for cattle, sons,
good health, and longevity.
- The transformations during this period laid the foundation for major
religious, philosophical, and socio-political developments
that influenced later Indian history.
Sacrifices in Early Indian Tradition
- Initially, sacrifices were performed collectively,
involving the participation of the community. However, from c. 1000
BCE to 500 BCE, some sacrifices began to be conducted by the
heads of households for the well-being of their families.
- More elaborate sacrifices, such as the
rajasuya (royal consecration) and
ashvamedha (horse sacrifice), were reserved for
chiefs and kings. These rulers relied on Brahmana
priests to perform these grand rituals, which symbolized power
and divine legitimacy.
Philosophical Reflections on Sacrifices
- From the sixth century BCE onwards, many ideas in the
Upanishads reflected a shift in religious thought. People
started questioning the meaning of life, the possibility of life
after death, and the concept of rebirth.
- Thinkers sought to understand the ultimate reality
(Brahman) beyond material existence.
- At the same time, non-Vedic traditions, such as Buddhism
and Jainism, critiqued the sacrificial system, advocating
alternative spiritual paths that emphasized personal ethics, meditation, and
self-realization.
This period marked a transition from ritualistic sacrifices to deeper
philosophical and spiritual inquiries, shaping India's religious
landscape.
Mahavira: The 24th Tirthankara of Jainism
Vardhamana Mahavira (c. 599 BCE – 527 BCE) was the
24th and last Tirthankara (spiritual teacher) of Jainism. He
played a crucial role in shaping and spreading Jain
philosophy.
Life and Teachings
- Born in Kundagrama (present-day Bihar) in a royal
Kshatriya family.
- At the age of 30, he renounced his princely life and
practiced severe penance and meditation for 12 years.
- Attained Kevala Jnana (supreme knowledge) under a
sal tree at the age of 42.
- Spent the rest of his life preaching non-violence (Ahimsa), truth
(Satya), non-stealing (Asteya), celibacy (Brahmacharya), and
non-possessiveness (Aparigraha).
The Message of Mahavira and Jainism
- Core Beliefs:
- Animism: Jainism teaches that all living
beings, from stones to water, possess life and
consciousness. This view promotes a deep respect for all forms of life.
- Ahimsa (Non-Violence): One of the core principles of
Jainism, ahimsa emphasizes not causing harm to any living
being, which has had a profound impact on Indian thought and culture.
- Karma and Rebirth: According to Jaina teachings, the
cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara) is influenced by
karma (actions). Every action, whether good or bad,
creates karma that affects one's future lives.
- Asceticism and Penance: Jainism advocates
asceticism (self-discipline) and penance
as necessary steps to cleanse oneself from accumulated karma, ultimately
leading to liberation (moksha). This requires renouncing worldly
attachments and comforts.
- The Five Vows:
Jain monks and nuns are required to take five vows that guide their conduct:
1.
Non-violence (Ahimsa): Avoiding harm to any
living being.
2.
Truthfulness (Satya): Avoiding lies.
3.
Non-stealing (Asteya): Not taking anything that
is not given.
4.
Celibacy (Brahmacharya): Abstaining from sexual
relations.
5.
Non-possession (Aparigraha): Renouncing
material possessions.
- Spread and Influence:
Jainism gradually spread across India, particularly in the regions of North India. Jain scholars produced a wealth of literature in Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Tamil, which played an important role in the preservation and dissemination of Jaina philosophy.
The principles of non-violence, asceticism, and karma from
Mahavira’s teachings continue to resonate in Indian culture and thought,
influencing individuals and communities committed to peace and ethical living.
Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama)
- Early Life:
Siddhartha Gautama, later known as the Buddha, was born in the 6th century BCE in Lumbini (modern-day Nepal). He was born into a royal family of the Shakya clan. His father, King Suddhodana, sought to shield him from the harsh realities of life, providing him with a life of luxury and comfort in the palace. - The Four Sights:
Despite his father’s efforts to protect him, Siddhartha ventured outside the palace and encountered the Four Sights that deeply troubled him: - An old man – representing the reality of aging.
- A sick man – symbolizing suffering.
- A dead body – pointing to the inevitability of death.
- A holy man – showing the path of spiritual awakening.
These experiences led him to question the meaning of life and suffering.
- Renunciation:
At the age of 29, Siddhartha decided to leave his family and royal life to seek answers to his questions about suffering, existence, and the nature of life. He became an ascetic, spending years practicing severe self-discipline, meditation, and austerities. - Enlightenment:
After many years of searching, Siddhartha meditated under a Bodhi tree (tree of enlightenment) in Bodh Gaya. There, he attained enlightenment (Bodhi) and became the Buddha, which means “the awakened one.” He realized the nature of suffering and the path to overcome it. - The Four Noble Truths:
The Buddha’s enlightenment led him to articulate the Four Noble Truths, which form the foundation of his teachings: - Dukkha (Suffering): Life is full of suffering and
dissatisfaction, whether it be physical or emotional.
- Samudaya (Origin of Suffering): The cause of suffering
is desire or craving (tanha), attachment, and ignorance.
- Nirodha (Cessation of Suffering): It is possible to end
suffering by eliminating its causes.
- Magga (The Path to End Suffering): The path to the
cessation of suffering is the Eightfold Path, which
includes right understanding, right intention, right speech, right action,
right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right
concentration.
- The Eightfold Path:
This is the practical guide to ethical living and mental discipline, leading to wisdom, ethical conduct, and mental development. It is a way to end suffering and attain Nirvana, the cessation of desire, attachment, and suffering. - Nirvana:
Nirvana is the ultimate goal in Buddhism. It is the state of liberation and freedom from suffering and the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara). Achieving Nirvana means transcending all desires and attachments. - Teaching and Spread:
After his enlightenment, the Buddha spent the rest of his life teaching others about the path to liberation. His teachings were spread across India and beyond, laying the foundation for Buddhism as a major world religion. - Buddhist Monastic Order:
Buddha established a monastic community (Sangha) for monks and nuns to follow his teachings and practice the path of liberation. Both laypeople and monks could follow the path, though monks dedicated their lives entirely to it. - Death:
The Buddha passed away at the age of 80 in Kushinagar. His last words were, "All compounded things are subject to decay. Strive with diligence." He left behind a legacy of teachings that continue to inspire millions of people around the world.
The core of Buddha’s teachings revolves around the nature of
suffering, its causes, and how one can free themselves from the cycle of
rebirth and attain inner peace through wisdom, ethical conduct, and mental
discipline.
Compilation of Buddha’s Teachings
None of Buddha’s speeches were written down during his
lifetime. After his death (c. fifth-fourth century BCE), his
disciples compiled his teachings through oral tradition.
- A council of elders (senior monks) was held at
Vesali, where his teachings were formally collected and
preserved.
- These teachings were memorized and passed down orally for
generations before they were finally written down.
- The first written records of his teachings appeared
several centuries later, in languages like Pali and
Sanskrit, forming the foundation of Buddhist scriptures like the
Tipitaka.
This process ensured the preservation and transmission of
Buddhism across different regions and generations.
Buddhist Texts: The Tipitaka (Three Baskets)
The Tipitaka is the sacred collection of Buddhist
scriptures, meaning "Three Baskets", as it categorizes
teachings into different sections.
- Vinaya Pitaka
- Contains rules and regulations for monks and nuns who
joined the Sangha (monastic order).
- Establishes guidelines for monastic discipline and daily conduct.
- Sutta Pitaka
- Includes the teachings of the Buddha, consisting of
discourses (suttas) delivered by him.
- Covers ethical, philosophical, and meditative practices.
- Abhidhamma Pitaka
- Deals with philosophical and psychological matters,
analyzing Buddhist doctrines in a systematic way.
- Explores the nature of consciousness, mental states, and reality.
These texts form the foundation of Theravāda Buddhism and
preserve the Buddha's teachings in their earliest recorded form.
Followers of the Buddha and the Formation of the Sangha
After the Buddha began teaching, he quickly gathered a group
of devoted followers, many of whom became monks. These followers formed the
Sangha, the monastic community that was central to the
practice and spread of Buddhism. The members of the Sangha played a crucial
role in preserving and teaching the Dhamma (the teachings of
the Buddha) to others.
Monastic Life in the Sangha
- Simplicity: The monks of the Sangha led a life of
simplicity, with very few material possessions. They lived on
alms, which were provided by the lay
community. This practice of accepting food once a day from the
laity reinforced the idea of humility and
non-attachment in Buddhist teachings.
- Bhikkhus: Monks were known as bhikkhus
(meaning "beggar" or "one who lives on alms") and were committed to the path
of renunciation. They were expected to practice discipline, meditate, and
spread the teachings of the Buddha.
Admission of Women into the Sangha
- Ananda’s Mediation: Initially, the Buddha’s Sangha was
composed exclusively of men. However, according to Buddhist texts, this
changed after Ananda, one of the Buddha’s closest disciples
and his cousin, requested that women be allowed to join the monastic
community. His request was made with great respect and after careful
consideration, leading to the Buddha’s agreement.
- Mahapajapati Gotami: The first woman to be ordained as a
bhikkhuni (female monk) was Mahapajapati
Gotami, the Buddha’s foster mother. She played a pivotal role in
establishing the bhikkhuni sangha, the order of nuns.
Women in the Sangha
- Theris: Many women who joined the Sangha became respected
teachers of the Dhamma and were known as
theris. This term refers to respected elder nuns, much like
the term "thera" for elder monks. These women made significant contributions
to the spread of Buddhism and became revered as spiritual leaders in their
own right.
- Role of Women: Women who joined the Sangha were not only
devoted practitioners but also intellectual leaders. They taught the Dhamma,
guided lay people in spiritual matters, and showed that women could be fully
engaged in the spiritual life, achieving the same liberation as men.
Thus, the establishment of the bhikkhuni sangha represented
an important development in the history of Buddhism, highlighting the
inclusivity of the Buddha’s teachings and the recognition of women’s potential
to attain enlightenment.
The Teachings of the Buddha
The Buddha’s teachings are primarily reconstructed from the
stories and discourses found in the Sutta Pitaka, one of the
three sections of the Tipitaka (the Buddhist canon). The
Sutta Pitaka contains the Buddha’s discourses and serves as
one of the most essential sources for understanding his philosophy, ethical
guidance, and spiritual practices.
Here are some of the central elements of the Buddha's
teachings as found in the Sutta Pitaka:
The Four Noble Truths
The core of the Buddha's teachings lies in the Four Noble
Truths, which are:
- Dukkha (Suffering): The first truth asserts that
suffering is an inherent part of life. It manifests in birth, old age,
sickness, and death, as well as in emotional and mental pain.
- Samudaya (The Cause of Suffering): The second truth
identifies the cause of suffering, which is desire or
craving (tanha). This craving leads to attachment and thus
suffering.
- Nirodha (The End of Suffering): The third truth teaches
that it is possible to end suffering by overcoming attachment and desire.
This state is called nirvana, a state of liberation and
peace.
- Magga (The Path to End Suffering): The fourth truth
outlines the path to the cessation of suffering—the Noble Eightfold
Path.
The Noble Eightfold Path
This path consists of eight practices or principles that help individuals
overcome suffering and achieve enlightenment. These are:
- Right Understanding (Samma ditthi) - Understanding the
nature of reality and the Four Noble Truths.
- Right Intent (Samma sankappa) - Cultivating thoughts of
kindness, compassion, and non-harm.
- Right Speech (Samma vaca) - Speaking truthfully and
kindly, avoiding lies, gossip, and harsh words.
- Right Action (Samma kammanta) - Acting ethically by
refraining from harm and committing to actions that promote well-being.
- Right Livelihood (Samma ajiva) - Earning a living in a
way that does not harm others or cause suffering.
- Right Effort (Samma vayama) - Striving to develop
wholesome qualities and abandon unwholesome ones.
- Right Mindfulness (Samma sati) - Practicing mindfulness
and awareness in every moment, especially in meditation.
- Right Concentration (Samma samadhi) - Developing deep
states of meditation, ultimately leading to profound insight and liberation.
The Doctrine of Anatta (Non-Self)
The Buddha taught that there is no permanent self (Atman) or
soul in individuals. Instead, what we consider "self" is merely a combination
of ever-changing physical and mental elements. This concept is central to
understanding anatta (non-self) and emphasizes the
impermanence and interconnectedness of all things.
Impermanence (Anicca)
The Buddha taught that all things are impermanent.
Everything in the world, including our thoughts, feelings, and physical
bodies, is subject to change. Recognizing the impermanence of life helps
individuals reduce attachment and suffering.
Karma and Rebirth
The Buddha emphasized the concept of karma, the law of cause
and effect. Every action, speech, and thought generates karma, which affects
future experiences. Through positive actions, one can create favorable karma
and move toward enlightenment. The cycle of rebirth (samsara)
continues until one achieves nirvana, thus breaking the
cycle.
Meditation and Mindfulness
The Buddha encouraged practices like meditation (dhyana) and
mindfulness (sati) to cultivate awareness, concentration, and
insight. Through meditation, one can directly experience the nature of reality
and gain wisdom that leads to liberation.
The Sutta Pitaka
The Sutta Pitaka is a vast collection of texts, organized
into five Nikayas (collections):
- Digha Nikaya – Long discourses of the Buddha.
- Majjhima Nikaya – Middle-length discourses.
- Samyutta Nikaya – Connected discourses, grouped by topic.
- Anguttara Nikaya – Numerical discourses, arranged by
number.
- Khuddaka Nikaya – Miscellaneous texts, including poems,
stories, and the Dhammapada.
These texts provide direct access to the Buddha’s teachings and are crucial
for understanding the path to liberation and wisdom.
Through the Sutta Pitaka and other Buddhist texts, the
Buddha’s message of compassion, ethical
conduct, mindfulness, and wisdom
has been passed down for over two millennia, continuing to guide followers
toward enlightenment.
Structure of a Stupa
The stupa, a key element of Buddhist architecture,
originated as a simple semicircular mound of earth called the
anda. Over time, the stupa evolved into a more complex
structure with symbolic and architectural significance:
- Anda (Mound): Initially, the stupa was just a mound of
earth that symbolized the burial of relics, which were believed to hold the
Buddha's spiritual presence.
- Harmika: Above the mound, a structure called the
harmika was built. This balcony-like platform was thought
to represent the abode of the gods, symbolizing the divine
realm. The harmika often enclosed the relic chamber, which contained sacred
relics of the Buddha or important Buddhist figures.
- Yashti (Mast): Rising from the harmika was a mast, or
yashti, which symbolized the axis of the universe (Mount
Meru) in Buddhist cosmology. It was often topped with an umbrella, called a
chhatri, which symbolized royalty and protection.
- Railing: Surrounding the stupa was a
railing or vedika, which separated the
sacred space of the stupa from the secular world. This also marked the
boundary between the physical and spiritual realms, providing a space for
meditation and worship.
- Toranas (Gateways): Many stupas, particularly the ones at
Sanchi, also featured toranas (elaborate gateways), which
were richly adorned with carvings and symbols. These gatehouses provided
access to the stupa and were often decorated with scenes from the Buddha's
life or Jataka tales.
Sculpture
The sculpture at stupas like Sanchi is an
essential feature of Buddhist art, often depicting significant events or
stories from the life of the Buddha or important moral teachings. The
sculptures at Sanchi are noted for their beauty and symbolic depth. One of the
famous scenes represented in Sanchi is the Vessantara Jataka,
which illustrates one of the Buddha's previous lives, showcasing the theme of
generosity and selflessness.
Symbols in Early Buddhist Art
In early Buddhist art, the Buddha was not depicted in human form. Instead,
artists used symbols to represent his presence and teachings:
- The Empty Seat: The Buddha's meditation was symbolized by
an empty throne or seat. This symbol represented his state of
meditation or nirvana.
- The Stupa: The stupa itself symbolized the
mahaparinirvana of the Buddha, representing the Buddha’s
death and the attainment of complete liberation from the cycle of rebirth.
- The Wheel of Dharma (Dharmachakra): The
wheel was one of the most prominent symbols in early
Buddhist art. It symbolized the First Sermon of the Buddha,
delivered at Sarnath. The wheel, with its eight spokes,
also represents the Noble Eightfold Path, the key teaching
of the Buddha that leads to the cessation of suffering.
Conclusion
The structure of the stupa and the sculptures surrounding it are rich in
meaning, serving both as places of meditation and as symbols of the Buddha’s
teachings. The early Buddhist practice of symbolizing the Buddha through
objects like the wheel, seat, and
stupa reflects the profound philosophical and spiritual
concepts within Buddhism, such as impermanence, enlightenment, and the pursuit
of liberation. These elements are not only architectural but also convey deep
metaphysical ideas, making the stupa an enduring symbol of Buddhist thought
and practice.
Popular Buddhist Traditions and Iconography
Buddhist art and traditions evolved over time, incorporating local beliefs,
practices, and artistic motifs. Here are some of the key elements in Buddhist
iconography and practices:
Shalabhanjika
One of the prominent motifs in Buddhist sculpture is the
shalabhanjika, depicted as a beautiful woman swinging from
the edge of a gateway and holding onto a tree. This figure is symbolic of a
woman whose touch caused trees to flower and bear fruit. It is likely that the
shalabhanjika symbol was considered auspicious and became
integrated into the decoration of stupas and other Buddhist monuments. The
inclusion of such motifs indicates the blending of Buddhist ideas with
pre-existing local or non-Buddhist traditions.
Animal Motifs
Buddhist sculptures from places like Sanchi often depict
various animals, including elephants,
horses, monkeys, and
cattle. These animals were more than decorative elements;
they were symbolic representations. For example:
- Elephants were often used to symbolize
strength and wisdom in Buddhist art.
- Other animals likely depicted stories from the Jataka
tales, which are narratives from the Buddha's previous lives,
many of which involve animals as protagonists.
Animals in these sculptures also served to make the scenes more lively and
relatable for viewers, enriching the overall narrative and emotional impact of
the art.
Other Motifs: Lotuses and Elephants
Another significant motif includes the image of a woman surrounded by
lotuses and elephants, with the elephants sprinkling water on her.
This scene was likely meant to symbolize purification and
blessing, similar to the Hindu ritual of
abhisheka or consecration. The presence of these elements
indicates a crossover of Buddhist and local symbolic practices.
Serpent Motif
The serpent motif appears on several pillars in Buddhist
architecture, representing protection and wisdom. It was associated with early
tree and serpent worship, a practice that predates and influences later
Buddhist iconography. James Fergusson, an early art historian, suggested that
Sanchi may have been a center of tree and serpent
worship, further integrating local traditions with emerging
Buddhist practices.
New Religious Traditions: The Rise of Mahayana Buddhism
Early Buddhism emphasized self-effort as the path to
nirvana, with the Buddha being seen as a human who attained
enlightenment through his own efforts. However, over time, new ideas emerged
within the Buddhist community:
- The Concept of the Bodhisatta: This new belief introduced
the idea of a Bodhisatta (or Bodhisattva), a being who
accumulates merit, not for personal salvation, but to help others achieve
enlightenment. Bodhisattvas are seen as deeply compassionate figures who
delay their own nirvana in order to aid others in their spiritual journey.
- Mahayana Buddhism: The development of the
Bodhisattva concept was part of a broader shift in Buddhist
thought, which led to the rise of Mahayana Buddhism.
Mahayana, meaning "Great Vehicle", emphasized compassion
and the collective liberation of all beings. In contrast, the older school
of thought, focusing on individual effort and enlightenment, came to be
known as Hinayana or the "Lesser Vehicle".
- Worship of Images: As part of this shift, the worship of
images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas became a central practice. Statues and
representations of the Buddha were venerated, and these figures symbolized
the enlightened ideal that followers aspired to emulate.
- Influence of Saviour Figures: The idea of a
saviour figure in Mahayana Buddhism paralleled similar
developments in other religious traditions, including
Vaishnavism and Shaivism in Hinduism,
where there was an increased focus on the worship of chosen deities (like
Vishnu or Shiva). These religious traditions began to emphasize the deity’s
role in the salvation of devotees, marking a significant shift from earlier
religious practices.
Conclusion
The evolution of Buddhist art and
traditions shows how Buddhism adapted to and incorporated
various local and pre-existing beliefs. Symbols like the
shalabhanjika, animal motifs, and serpent images illustrate
how Buddhist art served both as a medium for storytelling and a reflection of
cultural integration. Meanwhile, the development of Mahayana
Buddhism marked a pivotal shift towards a more inclusive and
compassionate path, emphasizing the role of Bodhisattvas and image worship,
which distinguished it from earlier forms of Buddhism and aligned it with
similar trends in Hinduism.
Purani Hinduism and Early Temples
Vaishnavism and Shaivism: Devotional Traditions
Vaishnavism and Shaivism represent two
prominent devotional traditions within Hinduism. Both
emphasize the worship of a principal deity and a deep connection between the
devotee and the divine, often visualized as a relationship based on
love and devotion (bhakti).
- Vaishnavism: Focuses on the worship of
Vishnu as the principal deity. Within this tradition,
avatars (incarnations of Vishnu) play a significant role.
Ten key avatars, known as the Dashavatara, are recognized,
and different avatars are particularly popular in various parts of India.
For example, Rama and Krishna are two of
the most widely revered avatars.
- Shaivism: Centers around the worship of
Shiva as the supreme god. In this tradition, Shiva is often
symbolized by the linga – a simple yet profound
representation of his presence.
These devotional practices emphasized a bond between the
devotee and the deity based on deep
affection, devotion, and surrender, which contrasted with earlier ritualistic
practices that were more formal and sacrificial.
Representation through Symbols and Sculpture
The deities in both Vaishnavism and Shaivism are often represented in a
symbolic form. For example:
- Shiva is commonly represented by the
linga.
- Vishnu’s avatars are depicted in various forms across
different regions of India. These depictions, whether in sculptures or
paintings, convey complex theological concepts about the deities and their
attributes.
The Puranas, which contain a wealth of mythological stories,
cosmological descriptions, and genealogies, were instrumental in transmitting
these ideas and images across regions. The interaction of
different peoples, especially those traveling and exchanging ideas across the
Indian subcontinent, played a crucial role in the development and spread of
these traditions.
Early Temples in Hinduism
The development of Hindu temples marks an important
evolution in the religious and architectural history of India. The early
temples were relatively simple, but over time, they became more complex and
elaborate.
- Garbhagriha (sanctum): The earliest temples typically
consisted of a small square room called the
garbhagriha, where the image of the deity was placed for
worship. This space was designed to be the sanctuary of the
temple, where devotees could offer prayers and worship directly to the
deity’s image.
- Shikhara (spire): Over time, temples began to be crowned
with a tall shikhara, or spire, symbolizing the spiritual
ascent towards the divine. This architectural feature became a prominent
characteristic of many later temples.
- Temple Complexes: As temple architecture evolved, larger
and more elaborate structures were built. These included assembly
halls, gateway structures, and large courtyards,
often accompanied by sculptures and intricate carvings. Additionally,
temples began to feature elaborate provisions for water supply, making them
centers not just for worship but also for community and cultural activities.
- Cave Temples: One of the remarkable features of early
temples is that many of them were hollowed out of rock,
creating artificial caves. This tradition of carving
temples out of rock dates back to the third century BCE
during the reign of Emperor Ashoka, who commissioned caves
for ascetics of the Ajivika sect. This practice evolved
over time, and in the eighth century, grand rock-cut
temples, like the Kailashnatha Temple dedicated to
Shiva, were constructed.
The Evolution of Art and Sculpture
Early Indian sculpture often depicted gods and
goddesses in highly stylized forms, some with multiple arms and
heads or with combinations of human and animal features. While these figures
might have seemed strange or grotesque to early European
scholars, they were profound expressions of the divine in Indian
art.
- Indo-Greek Influence: Scholars of the European
Renaissance were particularly fascinated by the sculptures of the
Buddha and Bodhisattvas, which were
believed to have been influenced by Greek artistic styles.
These sculptures, found in the northwestern parts of India, particularly in
cities like Taxila and Peshawar, were
created during the era of the Indo-Greek kingdoms (circa
second century BCE). The Greek influence was particularly
evident in the depictions of the Buddha, which incorporated
classical Greek elements such as drapery and
naturalistic features.
- Early Indian Art: Despite some scholars’ initial
dismissiveness of Indian art, the Buddha sculptures from
the northwest are often considered some of the finest early examples of
Indian sculpture because of their Greek-inspired realism.
Conclusion
The evolution of Purani Hinduism and the development of
temple architecture and sculpture reflect
the complex and dynamic nature of religious practices in India. From the rise
of Vaishnavism and Shaivism to the
construction of rock-cut temples, the art and architecture of early Hinduism
provided not only a space for worship but also a canvas for expressing complex
theological concepts. As these traditions spread and evolved, they became
enriched with local beliefs and ideas, leading to the vibrant diversity seen
in Hinduism today.
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