Notes on Peasants, Zamindars and the State - Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire CBSE Class 12th Themes in Indian History- Part II (Medieval India)

Notes on Peasants, Zamindars and the State – Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire CBSE Class 12th Themes in Indian History- Part II (Medieval India)

AGRARIAN SOCIETY

Agriculture was the backbone of the Mughal economy, shaping the social, economic, and political structure of the empire. The relationship between peasants and landlords was multifaceted, encompassing cooperation, competition, and conflict.

• The primary occupation of the majority of the population was agriculture, which played a crucial role in sustaining both rural livelihoods and imperial revenue.
• The state depended heavily on agricultural revenue, which was collected as taxes from peasants and landowners.
• Peasants engaged in year-round agricultural activities, adapting to seasonal cycles and ensuring continuous production.

SOURCES OF AGRARIAN HISTORY

Our knowledge of agrarian society during the Mughal period comes from a variety of sources:

• Chronicles and Documents: The Mughal court maintained detailed records, with the most significant being Ain-i Akbari compiled by Abu’l-Fazl. This document provides meticulous insights into land management, taxation policies, and state control over agrarian relations.
• Revenue Records: Regions such as Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan have preserved detailed revenue records from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, offering further insights into agrarian structures and relationships.
• East India Company Records: The extensive records of the East India Company document agrarian relations in eastern India, including peasant grievances, taxation systems, and land tenure structures.
• Conflict Records: These sources highlight tensions between peasants, zamindars, and the state, revealing peasant perspectives and their expectations of fairness from the ruling authorities.

AIN-I AKBARI – THE LANDMARK CHRONICLE

The Ain-i Akbari, written by Abu’l-Fazl, remains a crucial source for understanding Mughal agrarian policies:

• The text details the arrangements made by the state to ensure cultivation and systematic tax collection.
• The Ain is divided into five books (daftars), the first three describing Akbar’s administration, while the last two cover religious, literary, and cultural aspects.
• Despite its limitations, the Ain remains an extraordinary historical document that provides deep insights into agrarian society under Mughal rule.

PEASANT CLASSIFICATIONS

The Mughal agrarian society recognized two broad categories of peasants:

1. Khud-Kashta – These were peasants who permanently resided in villages, owned their land, and practiced agriculture.
2. Pahi-Kashta – These peasants cultivated land under contractual agreements, typically working on land owned by others.

VILLAGE PANCHAYAT

The village panchayat was a key institution in rural administration, providing governance and dispute resolution at the local level:

• Panchayats were elected by an assembly of village elders.
• The head of the panchayat, known as mandal or muqaddam, held office as long as he retained the confidence of the community.
• The panchayat could levy fines and even expel individuals from the community for serious offenses.
• In mixed-caste villages, the panchayat represented various communities, though lower-caste workers were often excluded.
• Panchayats played a role in maintaining social order and regulating economic activities.

JAJMANI SYSTEM

• The jajmani system was an informal patron-client system wherein landlords (zamindars) and wealthier villagers provided artisans and service providers (such as blacksmiths, carpenters, and barbers) with remuneration, often in the form of food, land, or small monetary payments.
• This system ensured the functioning of village society by integrating different occupational groups into a mutually dependent economic framework.

ZAMINDARS AND THEIR ROLE

Zamindars were powerful landowners who played a crucial role in Mughal agrarian society:

• They owned vast personal estates known as milkiyat and enjoyed social and economic privileges.
• Many zamindars collected revenue on behalf of the state, earning commissions for their services.
• Some zamindars maintained armed forces, including cavalry, artillery, and infantry, to protect their lands and enforce authority.
• While zamindars were often exploitative, their relationship with peasants also involved elements of patronage and reciprocity.
• Lower-caste individuals could rise to the status of zamindars through land colonization, state appointments, and acquisitions.

WOMEN IN AGRARIAN SOCIETY

Women played a significant role in Mughal agrarian society:

• They worked alongside men in the fields, reducing gendered segregation between domestic and external labor.
• Women engaged in artisanal production, such as spinning yarn, kneading clay for pottery, and embroidery.
• Due to the labor-intensive nature of agrarian society, women were valued as key contributors to household economies and were integral to sustaining agricultural output.
• In some communities, bride price (instead of dowry) was practiced, highlighting the economic importance of women.
• Among landed families, women had inheritance rights, and some even controlled zamindari estates, as seen in eighteenth-century Bengal.

FORESTS AND TRIBES

Forest dwellers, referred to as jangli, led distinct lifestyles based on forest resources and shifting cultivation:

• They engaged in hunting, gathering, and producing forest goods such as honey, wax, and gum lac.
• The forests provided refuge to rebels and political dissidents, making them spaces of resistance and subversion.
• Some forest tribes supplied elephants to the Mughal army, underscoring their economic integration into the empire.
• Tribal chieftains wielded authority, and some ascended to zamindari or even royal status.
• Certain tribes in Sind had formidable military contingents, with thousands of cavalry and infantry troops.

CONCLUSION

The agrarian society of the Mughal Empire was deeply interconnected with its political and economic structures. The intricate relationships between peasants, zamindars, and the state reflected both cooperation and conflict. Village institutions like panchayats and jajmani systems played crucial roles in maintaining rural order. Women’s contributions to agriculture and artisanal production were vital, while forest communities remained essential suppliers of resources. The dynamic interplay of these elements shaped the socio-economic landscape of the Mughal era, leaving a lasting impact on the Indian subcontinent’s agrarian history.

Expansion of the Mughal Empire's Land Revenue System:

The land revenue system of the Mughal Empire was crucial for maintaining its economic stability and supporting its military, administrative, and cultural endeavors. Here's a more detailed expansion on the components of the system:

Overview of the Land Revenue System:

1. Economic Backbone:
• Land revenue was the primary source of income for the Mughal Empire. It helped fund the military, administration, infrastructure, and cultural projects.
• The fiscal system was designed to ensure the efficient collection and management of resources, as land was the most abundant form of wealth in the empire.
2. The Diwan’s Role:
• The Diwan was the key official in charge of supervising the entire fiscal mechanism. His office (known as the daftar) kept detailed records of land revenue assessments and collections, ensuring transparency and accountability.
• The Diwan was responsible for ensuring that taxes were collected from agricultural produce and that they were fairly distributed across the empire. This included maintaining the balance between state revenue and peasant welfare.
3. Two-Stage Process of Revenue Collection:
• Assessment (Jama): This was the initial stage, where the total revenue expected from a particular land area was estimated based on the quality and productivity of the land. It was a calculated figure, designed to reflect the potential output of the land.
• Collection (Hasil): The second stage involved the actual collection of the revenue. The hasil was the amount of money or goods that was gathered from the peasants, who were the primary tax-paying class.
• The difference between jama (assessed) and hasil (actual collected) could reflect discrepancies due to local factors like crop failures, weather conditions, or disputes between collectors and cultivators.
4. Role of Amil-Guzar (Revenue Collector):
• The amil-guzar, or revenue collector, was tasked with ensuring that the peasants paid their dues.
• Under Akbar’s rule, the amil-guzar was expected to prefer cash payments but also keep the option open for payment in kind (such as crops or livestock) in cases where cash was not available.
• This flexibility helped the system maintain stability during poor harvest years or in regions with low monetary liquidity.

Land Classification Under Akbar:

1. Detailed Classification:
• Akbar, in his wisdom, implemented a detailed classification of land that took into account its productivity and cultivation cycle. This allowed the revenue system to be dynamic and responsive to the land’s actual output capacity.
2. Types of Land:
• Polaj: This type of land was continuously cultivated year after year without being left fallow. It was productive and highly valued for revenue purposes.
• Parauti: This land was temporarily left uncultivated to regain its fertility. It was often rotated with Polaj to allow the soil to recover, ensuring long-term agricultural productivity.
• Chachar: This was land left fallow for a period of three to four years. It could be restored to full productivity if worked properly after its rest period.
• Banjar: Land that had remained uncultivated for more than five years. It was often less fertile and required more effort to bring it back into productive use.
3. Land Quality:
• For each of these land types, further classification was done into three categories based on the quality of the soil and its productivity:
• Good: High fertility and productive capacity.
• Midding: Moderate productivity.
• Bad: Low fertility and less productive.

This classification ensured that taxes were levied according to the land's actual ability to produce crops, preventing excessive burdens on cultivators of poorer lands.

The Flow of Silver:

The influx of silver and the expanding global trade network had significant impacts on the Mughal Empire's economy, making it a key player in the global economy during the 16th and 17th centuries.

1. Global Trade Expansion:
• The Mughal Empire was situated at the crossroads of vital trade routes that connected Asia with Europe, Africa, and the Middle East.
• During the period of Akbar and his successors, the Mughal Empire actively engaged in trade with Europe, particularly after the opening of maritime routes by European powers such as Portugal, Spain, and later the British and Dutch.
2. Silver Influx:
• The opening of the New World led to an increase in global trade and the movement of precious metals, particularly silver, from the Americas to Europe and eventually to Asia.
• India, being a major center for luxury goods like textiles, spices, and indigo, was a key destination for European silver. The flow of silver bullion from Europe helped pay for these goods, particularly after the Portuguese and Dutch established trade routes in the Indian Ocean.
3. Impact on the Mughal Economy:
• The influx of silver stabilized the Indian economy and helped develop a more robust monetary system. The rupee, initially introduced by Sher Shah Suri, was minted in large quantities, and silver continued to be the primary currency in circulation.
• This stability in currency availability made trade more efficient, both within the empire and with foreign merchants. It also facilitated the growth of markets, towns, and cities.
4. The Silver Rupya:
• During the 16th and 17th centuries, the silver rupya became the most commonly used currency across much of India and beyond.
• This currency not only facilitated local trade but also played a role in international commerce. The stability of the silver-based currency ensured that the Mughal Empire could maintain a relatively high level of economic activity, even as it dealt with challenges such as war and political instability.

In conclusion, the Mughal Empire's land revenue system and the influx of silver from global trade were deeply intertwined. While the land revenue system helped maintain the empire’s agricultural backbone, the flow of silver boosted trade and provided stability to its currency. This combination of agricultural and monetary strength allowed the Mughal Empire to thrive for several centuries.

Timeline of Landmark Events in the History of the Mughal Empire:

1526 – Babur Defeats Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat, Becomes the First Mughal Emperor:

• Babur, a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, defeated Ibrahim Lodi of the Delhi Sultanate at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526. This victory laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire in India. Babur’s strategic use of artillery and military tactics marked the beginning of a new era in Indian history, with the Mughal dynasty rising to prominence.
• Babur's victory led to the establishment of the Mughal dynasty, and he became its first emperor. His reign, although short, was significant for consolidating the Mughals’ foothold in northern India.

First Phase of Humayun’s Reign (1530–1540):

• Humayun, Babur’s son, ascended the throne after Babur's death. However, his reign was marked by political instability, and he struggled to maintain control over the vast empire.
• In 1540, Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah Suri, the founder of the Suri Empire, in the Battle of Kanauj. Humayun was forced into exile, and the Mughal Empire briefly lost its territory.

Humayun in Exile at the Safavid Court:

• After his defeat, Humayun sought refuge at the court of the Safavid Empire in Persia. During his time in exile, he received assistance from the Safavid Shah, Tahmasp I, who helped him regain his strength and resources.

Humayun Regains Lost Territories (1555):

• After Sher Shah Suri’s death, his empire weakened, and Humayun returned to India with the support of Persian forces. In 1555, Humayun successfully recaptured Delhi and restored Mughal rule. His victory marked the beginning of the second phase of Mughal dominance in India.

Reign of Akbar (1556–1605):

• Akbar, Humayun’s son, ascended the throne at the age of 13 after his father’s death. His reign, lasting from 1556 to 1605, is considered the golden age of the Mughal Empire.
• Akbar’s policies of religious tolerance, administrative reforms, and military expansion strengthened the empire. He built a centralized government, reformed the tax system, and promoted art, culture, and architecture. His reign saw the empire expand to include nearly all of northern and central India, and the establishment of the Din-i Ilahi (a syncretic religion) was one of his notable efforts to unify his diverse empire.

Reign of Jahangir (1605–1627):

• Jahangir, Akbar’s son, succeeded him in 1605. His reign was characterized by consolidation and continued cultural patronage.
• Jahangir’s rule was notable for the flourishing of Mughal art and architecture. He was a patron of the arts and is credited with promoting miniature paintings, which became a hallmark of the period.
• His reign also saw the rise of Mansabdari (rank-based military and administrative system) and the strengthening of the empire’s bureaucracy.

Reign of Shah Jahan (1628–1658):

• Shah Jahan, Jahangir’s son, became the Mughal emperor in 1628. His reign is most famous for the architectural marvel of the Taj Mahal, built in memory of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal.
• During his rule, Shah Jahan continued to strengthen the empire, but he faced internal challenges, including rebellions and the consolidation of power within the nobility. His reign was also marked by economic prosperity and a flourishing of Mughal culture.
• However, towards the end of his reign, Shah Jahan became ill and was eventually overthrown by his son, Aurangzeb, who took control in 1658.

Reign of Aurangzeb (1658–1707):

• Aurangzeb succeeded his father, Shah Jahan, and became the sixth Mughal emperor. His reign from 1658 to 1707 saw the peak of the empire’s territorial expansion but also its eventual decline.
• Aurangzeb’s policies were more orthodox compared to his predecessors. He was a devout Muslim and imposed stricter laws, including the re-imposition of the jizya tax (tax on non-Muslims), which caused unrest among non-Muslim populations.
• His military campaigns expanded the Mughal Empire to its largest territorial extent, but they drained the empire’s resources and alienated various regional powers. The empire began to experience growing internal dissent, weakening its ability to sustain itself in the long run.

1739 – Nadir Shah Invades India and Sacks Delhi:

• In 1739, Nadir Shah, the ruler of Persia, invaded India and sacked Delhi, marking a major blow to the Mughal Empire.
• The invasion resulted in the massive plundering of Delhi, including the theft of priceless treasures like the Koh-i-Noor diamond. The devastation weakened the Mughal Empire, which had already been facing internal strife and external threats.

1761 – Ahmad Shah Abdali Defeats the Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat:

• In 1761, Ahmad Shah Abdali, the ruler of Afghanistan, decisively defeated the Marathas at the Third Battle of Panipat. This battle was a turning point in Indian history, as it significantly weakened the Maratha Empire, which had been a formidable force in India.
• The Mughal Empire, although in decline, still controlled significant territories in northern India, and Abdali’s victory indirectly paved the way for the eventual rise of the British in the subcontinent.

1765 – The Diwani of Bengal Transferred to the East India Company:

• In 1765, the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II granted the diwani (right to collect revenue) of Bengal to the East India Company, marking a significant step in the British East India Company’s growing influence in India.
• The transfer of the diwani effectively gave the British control over one of the richest provinces of the Mughal Empire, laying the groundwork for British colonial rule in India.

1857 – Last Mughal Ruler, Bahadur Shah II, Deposed by the British and Exiled to Rangoon:

• In 1857, the Indian Rebellion (also known as the Sepoy Mutiny) erupted against British rule. The rebellion marked the final attempt to resist British colonial dominance in India.
• The British suppressed the rebellion, and as a result, the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, was deposed, and the Mughal dynasty officially ended. He was exiled to Rangoon (now Yangon) in Burma (Myanmar), where he spent the remaining years of his life.

The fall of the Mughal Empire marked the end of an era in India, as the British East India Company began to consolidate its control, leading to direct British rule over India in the years that followed.