Notes on - An Imperial Capital Vijayanagara CBSE Class 12th Themes in Indian History- Part II (Medieval India)

Published on April, 25th 2025 Time To Read: 18 mins

An Imperial Capital - Vijayanagara (c. Fourteenth to Sixteenth Century)
The Discovery of Hampi
Rayas, Nayakas, and Sultans
The Apogee and Decline of the Vijayanagara Empire
Vijayanagara: The Capital and Its Environs
The Sacred Centre

THEME -7

(c. fourteenth to sixteenth century)

An Imperial Capital - Vijayanagara (c. Fourteenth to Sixteenth Century)

Discovery of Hampi

In 1799, Colin Mackenzie, the first British Surveyor General of India, visited the ruins of Hampi.
He collected manuscripts, created watercolor paintings of monuments, and made the first map of the site, which helped rediscover the city's historical significance.

Founding of the Vijayanagara Empire

Harihara and Bukka, two brothers, asserted their independence from the Delhi Sultanate and established the Vijayanagara Kingdom in 1336 AD.
The Rayas and Nayakas played prominent roles in the administration and expansion of the empire.
The warfare strategy mainly relied on a powerful cavalry.
Portuguese traders settled along the west coast of India during this period, establishing trading and military stations.

Climax and Decline of the Vijayanagara Empire

Krishnadeva Raya is remembered as an able administrator and a patron of art, culture, and infrastructure.

He is known for building dams for irrigation and magnificent palaces and temples.

The empire saw its decline after the defeat of Rama Raya at the Battle of Talikota in 1565.

Following this, the victorious forces plundered and destroyed the city of Vijayanagara.

Vijayanagara (Hampi) Architecture

The Vijayanagara architecture, often referred to as Hampi architecture, emerged during the period 1336-1365.

It evolved as a unique style, combining Hindu, Islamic, and indigenous influences.
The ruins today are celebrated for their grandeur and distinctive features, such as massive gateways, ornate pillars, and spacious courtyards.

Hampi Bazar

Portuguese travelers Paes and Nuniz, who visited Hampi in the mid-15th century, described the Hampi Bazar as a vibrant marketplace.

According to them, the bazar was lined with merchants selling rubies, diamonds, pearls, and cloth. It was a bustling center of trade, symbolizing the wealth of the Vijayanagara empire.

Vijayanagara Palaces and Buildings

Many details about the royal palaces and buildings of Vijayanagara come from archeological excavations at Hampi.

No actual royal palace structures have survived, but the ruins of the buildings and other structures offer insight into the architectural splendor of the city.

King’s Royal Enclosure

A significant building at Hampi is the King’s Royal Enclosure, which was described by Paes.

Paes noted that near the entrance of the enclosure, dancing women, richly adorned with jewels, entertained the royal court.

Mahanavami Dibba

The Mahanavami Dibba is a grand platform located on one of the highest points in the city.

It rises from a base of around 11,000 feet to a height of 40 feet and was believed to have supported a wooden structure.
It may have been used for ceremonial purposes, particularly during the Mahanavami festival, a key event in the Vijayanagara Empire.

Forts of Vijayanagara

The forts of the Vijayanagara Empire were crucial symbols of power and authority, built to protect the city from invasions.

The city itself was designed as a fortress, with fortified settlements and walls ensuring the safety and security of the inhabitants.
These forts played a significant role in the empire's military and strategic defense mechanisms.

Vijayanagara’s legacy continues to captivate historians and tourists, with the ruins of Hampi serving as a testament to the grandeur of this once-thriving empire.

Dynasties of the Vijayanagara Empire

Sangama Dynasty (1336-1485 CE)

The first ruling dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire, founded by Harihara I and Bukka I.
The dynasty established the foundation for the empire's political structure, military strategies, and economic prosperity.
Krishnadeva Raya, a prominent ruler from this dynasty, is often regarded as one of the greatest emperors of Vijayanagara.

Saluva Dynasty (1485-1505 CE)

The Saluva dynasty came to power after the fall of the Sangama dynasty.
Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya was a key ruler during this period, though the dynasty's rule was short-lived.
The Saluva rulers attempted to restore order and stability to the empire following the collapse of the Sangama dynasty.

Tuluva Dynasty (1505-1570 CE)

The Tuluva dynasty marked the peak of the Vijayanagara Empire under the rule of Krishnadeva Raya.
The empire flourished during this period with advancements in administration, art, architecture, and military conquests.
The Tuluva dynasty established strong control over the empire, and the empire reached its greatest territorial expansion.

Aravidu Dynasty (1570-1650 CE)

The Aravidu dynasty was the last ruling dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire.
The empire began to decline during this period, culminating in the destruction of Vijayanagara in the Battle of Talikota (1565).
Despite the decline, the Aravidu dynasty continued to hold power in the region, but the empire’s influence waned over time.

These four dynasties shaped the history and legacy of the Vijayanagara Empire, leaving a lasting impact on South Indian history and culture.

The Discovery of Hampi

The discovery and documentation of the ancient ruins at Hampi, which was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire, can be credited to Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an engineer and antiquarian working for the English East India Company in the early 19th century.

Initial Survey and Mapping (1800):

Mackenzie is often credited with bringing the ruins of Hampi to light in 1800.
He created the first survey map of the site based on the information he gathered from local priests of the Virupaksha Temple and the shrine of Pampadevi.
The oral history provided by these priests played a crucial role in documenting the initial findings.

Epigraphic and Photographic Documentation:

In 1836, epigraphists began collecting inscriptions found at various temples in Hampi, contributing to the textual understanding of the city’s past.
By 1856, photographers began capturing images of the monuments, offering a visual record that would allow scholars to study the architectural features of the ruins.

Historical Reconstruction:

Historians worked diligently to reconstruct the history of Hampi and the Vijayanagara Empire.
They used a combination of inscriptions, foreign travelers' accounts, and literature in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, and Sanskrit to piece together the city’s rich and complex history.

Significance of Hampi:

Hampi’s ruins provided vital clues about the grandeur and sophistication of the Vijayanagara Empire.
The city's monuments, temples, and inscriptions help in understanding the religious, social, and political life during the period of the empire's rule.
Hampi is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, drawing scholars and tourists from around the world.

This discovery marked the beginning of a renewed interest in the Vijayanagara Empire and its capital, Hampi, helping to establish its place in India’s rich historical and cultural heritage.

Rayas, Nayakas, and Sultans

Foundation of the Vijayanagara Empire:

The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336 by two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, who established their kingdom after asserting independence from the Delhi Sultanate.
They built the empire at Hampi and began consolidating power over the surrounding regions, laying the foundation for the Rayas, the rulers of Vijayanagara.

Diversity within the Empire:

The Vijayanagara Empire encompassed a vast and diverse population, speaking a variety of languages and practicing different religions.
Telugu, Kannada, and Tamil were some of the primary languages spoken, and the region saw a blend of Hinduism, Islam, and other religious traditions.

Rivalries with Contemporaneous Rulers:

The Vijayanagara rulers, who identified themselves as Rayas, often found themselves in competition with powerful contemporaries.
The Sultans of the Deccan, including rulers from Bijapur, Golconda, and Ahmednagar, and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa, were significant rivals for control over fertile river valleys and strategic regions.

Warfare and Military Strategies:

Warfare in the Vijayanagara Empire was heavily dependent on the cavalry, which was a key military strength for both offensive and defensive campaigns.
The Vijayanagara kings deployed large cavalry forces to assert control over their territories and defend against invaders.

Portuguese Influence:

The Portuguese arrived on the west coast of India in the early 16th century, seeking to establish trading posts and military stations.
They played a significant role in the region's trade and contributed to the dynamics of the Vijayanagara Empire, especially in terms of the economy, naval power, and diplomatic relations.

The Vijayanagara Empire was a powerful and complex state that thrived through both internal governance and external rivalry, leaving a lasting impact on the Indian subcontinent.

Kings and Traders in the Vijayanagara Empire

Vibrant Markets and Trade:

Vijayanagara was renowned for its bustling markets that dealt in a variety of valuable commodities, including spices, textiles, and precious stones.
The marketplaces were filled with exotic goods from different parts of the world, with traders from regions such as Persia, Arabia, East Africa, and Southeast Asia contributing to the empire's rich economic fabric.

Status Symbol of Trade:

Trade in Vijayanagara was not just about the exchange of goods but was also considered a status symbol for the city's elite and its prosperous population.
The demand for high-value goods, including jewellery, pearls, diamonds, and rubies, reflected the opulence and wealth of the city. The ruling class and noble families often used their access to luxury goods as a symbol of power and prestige.

Role of Precious Stones:

The empire's markets were especially famous for the trade in precious stones. Hampi itself, as the capital, was often described as a vibrant trade hub for rubies, diamonds, sapphires, and pearls.
According to foreign travellers like Paes and Nuniz, these precious stones were traded openly in the markets of Hampi Bazar, contributing to the empire's global reputation as a center of luxury and wealth.

Wealth and Economic Prosperity:

The trade of spices and textiles further enriched the Vijayanagara Empire, as these items were in high demand across Europe, the Middle East, and other parts of Asia.
The ability of the Vijayanagara kings to sustain these thriving markets allowed them to amass wealth, which was used to finance large-scale building projects, including temples, palaces, and fortifications.

The combination of trade, luxury goods, and economic prosperity contributed to the lasting success and influence of the Vijayanagara Empire during its peak.

The Apogee and Decline of the Vijayanagara Empire

Early Dynasties and Rise to Power

The Vijayanagara Empire was initially ruled by the Sangama dynasty, which held power until 1485. The empire then came under the control of the Saluva dynasty, composed of military commanders, until 1503. The Saluvas were eventually replaced by the Tuluva dynasty, to which the greatest ruler of Vijayanagara, Krishnadeva Raya, belonged.

Krishnadeva Raya (1509-1530)

Krishnadeva Raya, the most illustrious ruler of Vijayanagara, was a member of the Tuluva dynasty. His reign was marked by extensive territorial expansion, military conquests, and remarkable contributions to art and culture. Some of his key achievements include:

Military Conquests:

Captured the land between the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers (Raichur Doab).
Defeated the rulers of Orissa in 1512.
Defeated the Sultan of Bijapur in 1514.

Architectural Contributions:

Constructed the Hazara Ramaswami Temple and the Vittalaswami Temple in Vijayanagara.
Built massive gopurams (temple gateways).
Founded the town of Nagalapuram in honor of his mother, Nagaladevi.

Cultural and Literary Patronage:

Known as Andhra Bhoja, a title reflecting his patronage of Telugu literature.
Received the title "Establisher of Yavana Kingdoms" for his military accomplishments.
Wrote ‘Amuktamalyada’ in Telugu, a treatise on statecraft.
Authored ‘Usha Parinayam’ in Sanskrit.

The Climax and Decline of Vijayanagara Empire

Following the death of Krishnadeva Raya in 1529, internal strife weakened the empire. His successors faced challenges from rebellious nayakas (military chiefs), leading to instability. Other factors contributing to the decline included:

Political Instability: Weak rulers struggled to maintain control over the empire.
Rivalries with Deccan Sultanates: Despite occasional alliances, military conflicts with the Deccan Sultanates escalated.
The Battle of Talikota (1565): A coalition of the Deccan Sultanates decisively defeated the Vijayanagara forces, leading to the catastrophic sack of the city.
Destruction of Vijayanagara: The victorious Sultans plundered and destroyed the capital, marking the empire’s downfall.

Conclusion

Despite its decline, the Vijayanagara Empire left a lasting legacy in South Indian culture, architecture, and literature. Krishnadeva Raya’s reign remains a golden era of political stability, military success, and artistic brilliance in Indian history.

The Rayas and the Nayakas

Nayakas were military chiefs who usually controlled forts and had armed supporters.

They moved from one area to another, often accompanied by peasants seeking fertile land for settlement.
They typically spoke Telugu or Kannada. While many nayakas submitted to the authority of the Vijayanagara kings, they frequently rebelled and had to be subdued through military action.
The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire.
Nayakas served as military commanders who were granted territories to govern by the raya.
They collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftspersons, and traders in their territories.
These contingents provided the Vijayanagara kings with a strong fighting force, enabling them to consolidate control over the entire southern peninsula.

Conclusion

Vijayanagara: The Capital and Its Environs

Vijayanagara: The Capital and Its Environs

The Vijayanagara Empire was known for its grand capital, Vijayanagara, which showcased an advanced urban layout, sophisticated water management, and impressive architectural achievements. The city was strategically located and well-fortified, reflecting its significance as a political, cultural, and economic hub.

Architecture of Vijayanagara Empire

The city of Vijayanagara was characterized by a distinctive architectural style that combined indigenous traditions with external influences. It featured an elaborate system of water conservation, robust fortifications, and intricately designed temples, palaces, and marketplaces.

Water Resources

Water management was a critical aspect of Vijayanagara’s infrastructure. The city had a well-planned system to store and distribute water, ensuring a steady supply for agriculture, domestic use, and religious rituals.

Natural Basin: The city was situated in a basin formed by the Tungabhadra River, which provided a vital water source.
Granite Hills and Streams: Streams from the surrounding granite hills fed into the river, and embankments were built to create reservoirs.
Kamalapuram Tank: Built in the 15th century, this large reservoir played a crucial role in water storage and distribution.
Hiriya Canal: One of the most significant waterworks, channeling water from the Tungabhadra River to different parts of the city.

Fortifications and Roads

The city’s fortifications were among its most remarkable features, designed to protect against enemy invasions and safeguard agricultural lands.

Seven Lines of Fortifications: Persian ambassador Abdur Razzaq described the city’s extensive fortifications, which encircled not just the city but also its hinterlands and agricultural zones.
Agricultural Protection: Unlike many medieval cities, Vijayanagara’s fortifications enclosed farmlands, ensuring food security during sieges.
Elaborate Canal System: This system helped in irrigation and enhanced the city’s sustainability.
Well-Planned Roads: Roads were designed to wind through valleys, avoiding rocky terrain. Some of the most significant roads extended from temple gateways and were lined with bustling bazaars.

The Urban Core

The heart of Vijayanagara was a blend of residential, commercial, and religious spaces, displaying its diverse and vibrant character.

Ordinary Residences: Archaeological excavations reveal houses of common people along the main roads.
Trade and Cultural Exchange: The discovery of Chinese porcelain in the Muslim residential quarter indicates long-distance trade connections.
Islamic Influence: Tombs and mosques in the city mirrored temple architecture, reflecting a cultural synthesis.
Religious Diversity: The presence of numerous shrines and temples indicates the support of different religious traditions and sects.

The Royal Centre of Vijayanagara

The Royal Centre of Vijayanagara was located in the south-western part of the settlement. This area served as the political and administrative hub of the empire, where the king and his court conducted state affairs, held grand ceremonies, and interacted with foreign visitors.

Archaeological excavations have revealed that the Royal Centre housed about thirty building complexes, which have been identified as palaces. These structures were not just residential spaces but also included administrative offices, audience halls, and spaces for conducting important courtly and state-related functions.

One major difference between the secular buildings and temples in Vijayanagara was the choice of construction materials. While temples were entirely built of masonry to ensure durability and permanence, palaces and other royal structures had a combination of stone foundations and superstructures made of perishable materials like wood and brick. This is why the palaces have largely disappeared over time, leaving only their stone bases and remnants of decorative features.

The Mahanavami Dibba

One of the most striking and significant features of the Royal Centre is the Mahanavami Dibba, an elaborate platform used for grand ceremonies and royal displays of power.

The king’s palace contained two of the most important platforms:

The Audience Hall
The Mahanavami Dibba

The Audience Hall

This was a high platform with evenly spaced slots for wooden pillars, indicating that it once supported a large wooden structure.
The hall was likely used for courtly gatherings, public addresses, and discussions on state matters.
It was surrounded by high double walls, with a street running between them, suggesting that access to this space was restricted and controlled.

The Mahanavami Dibba

This is one of the highest points in the city, making it a visible and dominant structure in the Royal Centre.
It is a massive stone platform, covering about 11,000 square feet at its base and rising to a height of 40 feet.
The structure originally supported a wooden pavilion, which has since decayed.
The base of the platform is adorned with intricate relief carvings, depicting scenes of royal processions, military campaigns, and cultural festivities.
The Mahanavami Dibba was used for state ceremonies and important rituals, particularly those associated with the Mahanavami festival.

Significance of the Mahanavami Festival

Mahanavami (meaning “Great Ninth Day”) is an important festival celebrated during the autumn months of September and October.
This occasion was used by the Vijayanagara kings to display their power, wealth, and divine right to rule.
Historical records suggest that grand processions, military parades, performances by musicians and dancers, and rituals honoring the king were held on this platform.
The event also included spectacular offerings to deities, animal sacrifices, and distribution of gifts to nobles and officials.

The Mahanavami Dibba thus served as a stage for political theater, where the empire’s might and cultural sophistication were put on full display for both local subjects and foreign envoys.

Other Buildings in the Royal Centre

Apart from palaces and audience halls, the Royal Centre also had several other important structures, including pleasure pavilions, temples, and administrative offices.

The Lotus Mahal

One of the most beautiful and architecturally unique structures in the Royal Centre is the Lotus Mahal.
The name “Lotus Mahal” was given by British travelers in the 19th century due to its delicate, lotus-like arches and symmetrical design.
The structure combines elements of Indo-Islamic architecture, featuring arched openings, domed ceilings, and ornate stucco decorations.
It is believed to have been a royal pleasure pavilion or a council chamber for the queens.

Temples in the Royal Centre

Although most temples in Vijayanagara were located in the Sacred Centre, several significant temples were also built within the Royal Centre.
One of the most spectacular is the Hazara Rama Temple.
This temple was dedicated to Lord Rama and is renowned for its extensive bas-reliefs depicting scenes from the Ramayana.
The temple was likely reserved for the royal family’s private worship, rather than being open to the public.

Conclusion

The Royal Centre of Vijayanagara was the heart of the empire’s political, administrative, and ceremonial activities. The palaces, audience halls, and ceremonial platforms—particularly the Mahanavami Dibba—highlight the grandeur and power of the Vijayanagara kings. The presence of pleasure pavilions like the Lotus Mahal and private temples like the Hazara Rama Temple further emphasize the sophisticated and multifaceted nature of royal life in the city.

Would you like more details on any specific aspect, such as architecture, daily life in the Royal Centre, or foreign travelers’ accounts of Vijayanagara?

The Sacred Centre

Choosing a Capital

According to local tradition, the rocky northern end of the city on the banks of the Tungabhadra sheltered the monkey kingdom of Vali and Sugriva from the Ramayana.
Pampadevi, the local mother goddess, is believed to have performed penance in these hills to marry Virupaksha, a form of Shiva.
The marriage of Pampadevi and Virupaksha is still celebrated annually in the Virupaksha Temple.
The region housed Jaina temples from the pre-Vijayanagara period, highlighting the coexistence of multiple religious traditions.
Rulers encouraged temple building as a means of associating themselves with the divine.
Temples served as centers of learning and played significant religious, social, cultural, and economic roles.
The presence of Virupaksha and Pampadevi shrines likely influenced the selection of Vijayanagara as the capital.
The Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of Virupaksha and signed royal orders as “Shri Virupaksha,” usually in the Kannada script.
The rulers also used the title “Hindu Suratrana,” meaning Hindu Sultan, showcasing their synthesis of cultural traditions.
Portrait sculptures of rulers were displayed in temples, and their visits were treated as significant state occasions.

Gopurams and Mandapas

The period saw the emergence of new temple architectural features.
Raya Gopurams (royal gateways) were monumental structures visible from afar, often overshadowing the temple towers.
Mandapas (pavilions) and pillared corridors were significant elements within temple complexes.
The Virupaksha Temple, originally dating to the 9th-10th centuries, was substantially expanded under Vijayanagara rule.
Krishnadeva Raya built the hall in front of the main shrine to mark his accession, featuring exquisitely carved pillars.
He also constructed the eastern gopuram, enlarging the central shrine complex.
Temple halls served multiple purposes, including housing divine images for music, dance, and drama performances, celebrating deity marriages, and hosting processions.

Vitthala Temple and Chariot Streets

The Vitthala Temple was dedicated to Vitthala, a form of Vishnu commonly worshipped in Maharashtra, reflecting the cultural diversity of Vijayanagara.
The temple complex featured multiple halls and a shrine designed as a stone chariot.
Chariot streets extended from temple gopurams in straight lines.
These streets were paved with stone slabs and lined with pillared pavilions used by merchants for trade.
Local Nayakas (governors) continued and enhanced Vijayanagara’s temple-building traditions, constructing some of the most spectacular gopurams.

Conclusion

The surviving structures of Vijayanagara provide insights into its urban planning, construction techniques, and social organization. Though wooden structures have perished, stone buildings and traveler accounts help reconstruct the city's vibrant history. The temples, palaces, fortifications, and markets illustrate the grandeur and complexity of this medieval empire, reflecting a unique blend of religious devotion, trade, and imperial authority.