Bricks, Beads and Bones -The Harappan Civilisation - CBSE Class 12th

Early Harappan culture – Before 2600 BCE

The Early Harappan Culture (before 2600 BCE) refers to the formative phase of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), which laid the foundation for the later Mature Harappan period (2600–1900 BCE). This phase is characterized by small, scattered settlements that gradually developed into more complex urban centers.

Key Features of Early Harappan Culture (c. 3300–2600 BCE)

1. Regional Cultures & Settlements
• Early Harappan culture is identified at various sites across present-day Pakistan and northwest India.
• Important sites: Mehrgarh, Rehman Dheri, Kot Diji, Amri, Kalibangan.
• Settlements were smaller (compared to later cities) and primarily rural, with some early urban planning.
2. Agriculture & Economy
• Domestication of wheat, barley, pulses, and cotton.
• Domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, and goats.
• Evidence of irrigation and plowing techniques, especially at Kalibangan.
3. Pottery & Craft Production
• Distinctive handmade and wheel-made pottery.
• Use of terracotta figurines, beads, and rudimentary metallurgy (copper and bronze).
• Early trade networks with Mesopotamia and Central Asia.
4. Proto-Urban Features
• Some settlements show mud-brick houses, basic drainage, and rudimentary fortifications (e.g., Kot Diji & Rehman Dheri).
• Early signs of town planning, including grid patterns and streets.
5. Burial Practices & Religion
• Simple burials with grave goods, indicating beliefs in an afterlife.
• Early depictions of symbolic or religious motifs, possibly linked to later Harappan deities.

Transition to Mature Harappan Phase (After 2600 BCE)

• By 2600 BCE, several Early Harappan cultures evolved into a unified, highly organized civilization with advanced cities such as Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and Dholavira.
• This period saw the development of standardized weights, seals, script, and a complex trade system.

The Early Harappan culture represents the foundation of one of the world's earliest urban civilizations, paving the way for the flourishing Indus Valley Civilization.

Mature Harappa culture – 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE

The Mature Harappan Culture (2600 BCE – 1900 BCE) represents the peak of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), characterized by well-planned cities, advanced engineering, standardized trade systems, and a script that remains undeciphered. This period marked the height of urbanization and economic prosperity in the civilization.

Key Features of the Mature Harappan Culture

1. Well-Planned Cities & Architecture

• The civilization had highly organized cities built using burnt bricks and laid out in a grid pattern.
• Major urban centers: Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, Lothal, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi.
• Drainage System: Underground drainage with covered sewers and soak pits.
• Public Buildings:
• Great Bath (Mohenjo-Daro) – Possibly used for ritualistic or ceremonial purposes.
• Granaries (Harappa & Mohenjo-Daro) – Storage centers for surplus grains.
• Citadels & Lower Towns – The citadel housed administrative and religious structures, while the lower town had residential areas.

2. Advanced Economy & Trade

• Agriculture-based economy with surplus production of wheat, barley, rice, and cotton.
• Extensive trade networks with Mesopotamia (Sumer), Persia, and Central Asia.
• Indus seals found in Mesopotamia indicate trade relations.
• Trade items included copper, lapis lazuli, beads, shells, and textiles.
• Standardized weights and measures used in trade and taxation.
• Ports and dockyards, such as Lothal in Gujarat, indicate maritime trade.

3. Technology & Crafts

• Metallurgy: Widespread use of copper, bronze, lead, and tin.
• Pottery: Painted pottery with geometric and floral designs.
• Seals & Script:
• Steatite seals with pictographic inscriptions (Indus script, still undeciphered).
• Many seals depict a one-horned bull (unicorn), possibly a religious or cultural symbol.
• Terracotta figurines and jewelry made of gold, silver, and semi-precious stones.

4. Social & Political Organization

• No clear evidence of kings or palaces, suggesting a decentralized political system.
• Society was likely highly organized with merchants, artisans, farmers, and administrators.
• Evidence of possible local governance, as each city functioned independently but with shared cultural traits.

5. Religion & Culture

• No large temples or palaces, suggesting a non-theocratic society.
• Worship of mother goddess figurines, Pashupati-like deity (proto-Shiva), and sacred animals.
• Evidence of fire altars (Kalibangan) suggests ritual practices.
• Burials were simple, with some grave goods but no elaborate tombs or pyramids.

Decline of the Mature Harappan Civilization (After 1900 BCE)

• Signs of gradual decline rather than a sudden collapse.
• Possible reasons for decline:
• Climate change & shifting river courses (Sarasvati drying up).
• Decline in trade with Mesopotamia.
• Overuse of land leading to reduced agricultural productivity.
• Possible invasions or internal conflicts.

After 1900 BCE, the civilization fragmented into regional cultures (Late Harappan phase), with many cities abandoned or reduced in size.

The Mature Harappan period remains one of the most advanced Bronze Age civilizations, with its sophisticated urban planning, trade, and cultural achievements leaving a lasting impact on South Asian history.

Mature Harappa culture – 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE

The Mature Harappan Culture (2600 BCE – 1900 BCE) represents the peak of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), characterized by well-planned cities, advanced engineering, standardized trade systems, and a script that remains undeciphered. This period marked the height of urbanization and economic prosperity in the civilization.

Key Features of the Mature Harappan Culture

1. Well-Planned Cities & Architecture

• The civilization had highly organized cities built using burnt bricks and laid out in a grid pattern.
• Major urban centers: Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, Lothal, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi.
• Drainage System: Underground drainage with covered sewers and soak pits.
• Public Buildings:
• Great Bath (Mohenjo-Daro) – Possibly used for ritualistic or ceremonial purposes.
• Granaries (Harappa & Mohenjo-Daro) – Storage centers for surplus grains.
• Citadels & Lower Towns – The citadel housed administrative and religious structures, while the lower town had residential areas.

2. Advanced Economy & Trade

• Agriculture-based economy with surplus production of wheat, barley, rice, and cotton.
• Extensive trade networks with Mesopotamia (Sumer), Persia, and Central Asia.
• Indus seals found in Mesopotamia indicate trade relations.
• Trade items included copper, lapis lazuli, beads, shells, and textiles.
• Standardized weights and measures used in trade and taxation.
• Ports and dockyards, such as Lothal in Gujarat, indicate maritime trade.

3. Technology & Crafts

• Metallurgy: Widespread use of copper, bronze, lead, and tin.
• Pottery: Painted pottery with geometric and floral designs.
• Seals & Script:
• Steatite seals with pictographic inscriptions (Indus script, still undeciphered).
• Many seals depict a one-horned bull (unicorn), possibly a religious or cultural symbol.
• Terracotta figurines and jewelry made of gold, silver, and semi-precious stones.

4. Social & Political Organization

• No clear evidence of kings or palaces, suggesting a decentralized political system.
• Society was likely highly organized with merchants, artisans, farmers, and administrators.
• Evidence of possible local governance, as each city functioned independently but with shared cultural traits.

5. Religion & Culture

• No large temples or palaces, suggesting a non-theocratic society.
• Worship of mother goddess figurines, Pashupati-like deity (proto-Shiva), and sacred animals.
• Evidence of fire altars (Kalibangan) suggests ritual practices.
• Burials were simple, with some grave goods but no elaborate tombs or pyramids.

Decline of the Mature Harappan Civilization (After 1900 BCE)

• Signs of gradual decline rather than a sudden collapse.
• Possible reasons for decline:
• Climate change & shifting river courses (Sarasvati drying up).
• Decline in trade with Mesopotamia.
• Overuse of land leading to reduced agricultural productivity.
• Possible invasions or internal conflicts.

After 1900 BCE, the civilization fragmented into regional cultures (Late Harappan phase), with many cities abandoned or reduced in size.

The Mature Harappan period remains one of the most advanced Bronze Age civilizations, with its sophisticated urban planning, trade, and cultural achievements leaving a lasting impact on South Asian history.

Late Harappa culture – After 1900 BCE

The Late Harappan Culture (after 1900 BCE – c. 1300 BCE) marks the decline and fragmentation of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC). This period saw a shift from urban centers to smaller, rural settlements, changes in material culture, and the gradual disappearance of key Harappan features.

Key Features of the Late Harappan Culture (1900 BCE – 1300 BCE)

1. Decline of Urban Centers

• Major cities like Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, and Kalibangan were abandoned or significantly reduced in population.
• Smaller, decentralized villages emerged, mainly in the upper Gangetic plains, Gujarat, Haryana, and Rajasthan.
• The well-organized urban planning, drainage, and brick architecture deteriorated.

2. Changes in Economy & Trade

• Long-distance trade declined, particularly with Mesopotamia and Central Asia.
• Agriculture remained but showed signs of stress, possibly due to climatic changes.
• The use of standardized Harappan weights and measures disappeared.

3. Shift in Pottery & Material Culture

• The fine Mature Harappan pottery (red and black painted ware) declined, replaced by simpler styles like Ochre-Colored Pottery (OCP) and Grey Ware.
• Use of copper and bronze decreased, with a rise in iron objects towards the end of this phase.
• Terracotta figurines, bangles, and beads continued but showed regional variations.

4. Sociocultural Changes

• Harappan script disappeared, and no new script replaced it.
• Burial customs changed – evidence of individual graves rather than communal or elaborate burials.
• Signs of cultural interactions with incoming Indo-Aryan groups, especially in the northwestern regions.

5. Possible Reasons for Decline

• Climate Change & River Shifts – The drying up of the Sarasvati River may have forced migrations.
• Decline in Trade – The collapse of Mesopotamian trade networks affected economic stability.
• Overexploitation of Resources – Deforestation, soil depletion, and overgrazing may have weakened settlements.
• Invasions or Migrations – The arrival of Indo-Aryans, though debated, may have influenced cultural shifts.

Legacy & Transition

• The Harappan traditions did not vanish entirely but merged into later cultures like:
• Cemetery H Culture (Punjab region, 1900–1300 BCE)
• Ochre-Colored Pottery (OCP) Culture (Gangetic plains)
• Painted Grey Ware Culture (PGW) (Later Vedic period, 1200 BCE onward)
• Elements of Harappan culture, such as town planning, religious motifs, and craft traditions, influenced later Vedic and early historic cultures of South Asia.

The Late Harappan phase represents the transition from the urban Indus Valley Civilization to the early historic cultures of the Indian subcontinent, shaping the foundations of future civilizations.

Extent of the Harappan Civilization

The Harappan Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), covered a vast geographical area across present-day India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. It was one of the largest Bronze Age civilizations, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Arabian Sea in the south and from the western deserts to the fertile plains in the east.

Geographical Boundaries of the Harappan Civilization

1. Northern Boundary – Manda (Jammu & Kashmir, India)
• The northernmost site of the civilization.
• Located on the banks of the Chenab River.
2. Southern Boundary – Daimabad (Maharashtra, India)
• The southernmost site, situated in present-day Maharashtra.
• Notable for evidence of Harappan pottery and copper artifacts.
3. Eastern Boundary – Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh, India)
• The easternmost site, located near the Yamuna River.
• Provided evidence of late Harappan pottery and culture.
4. Western Boundary – Sutkagendor (Balochistan, Pakistan)
• The westernmost site, near the Pakistan-Iran border.
• Functioned as a coastal trading center.

Food Habits of the Harappan People

The Harappan people had a well-balanced diet based on agriculture, domesticated animals, and trade. Their food habits varied across regions, depending on local resources, but archaeological evidence suggests a diverse diet that included grains, pulses, fruits, dairy, meat, and fish.

1. Agricultural Produce (Staple Diet)

The Harappans were advanced agriculturalists and cultivated various crops:

• Wheat & Barley – Primary staples, found at several sites (e.g., Harappa, Mehrgarh).
• Rice – Evidence of rice grains found at Lothal and Rangpur (Gujarat).
• Millets – Consumed in southern Harappan sites like Daimabad.
• Pulses – Lentils, chickpeas, and green grams were part of their diet.
• Oilseeds – Sesame and mustard were used for oil extraction.

2. Animal-Based Food

The Harappans domesticated animals and consumed meat and dairy products:

• Cattle (Zebu), Buffalo, Sheep, and Goats – Provided milk, meat, and labor.
• Fish & Seafood – Evidence of fish bones and shellfish at coastal sites like Dholavira and Lothal.
• Wild Animals – Some evidence of hunting deer, boars, and birds for meat.

3. Dairy Products

• Milk and its products (butter, curd, and ghee) were likely consumed, as indicated by the domestication of cattle.
• Remains of dairy processing have been found at sites like Kot Diji.

4. Fruits & Vegetables

• Fruits: Dates, melons, pomegranates, and grapes were likely consumed.
• Vegetables: Onions, garlic, turmeric, and ginger were possibly used for cooking.

5. Cooking Methods & Utensils

• Food was cooked using clay ovens (chulhas) and earthen pots.
• Grinding stones and pestles were used to prepare grains and spices.
• Copper and bronze utensils were used in wealthier households.

6. Beverages & Fermented Products

• Water & Milk were commonly consumed.
• Evidence suggests fermented beverages (early forms of beer or fermented grain drinks).

7. Trade & Food Diversity

• Harappans imported items like dates from Mesopotamia and possibly spices from South India.
• Salt from Gujarat was likely used for preservation and seasoning.

Conclusion

The Harappans had a nutritious and diverse diet, combining agriculture, animal husbandry, and trade to sustain their civilization. Their food habits influenced later Indian dietary traditions.

Agricultural Technologies of the Harappan Civilization

The Harappan Civilization (2600–1900 BCE) was highly advanced in agriculture, employing various technologies and techniques to enhance productivity. Agriculture was the backbone of their economy, supported by efficient irrigation, plowing, and storage methods.

1. Plowing & Tilling Techniques

• Plowed Fields: Evidence from Kalibangan (Rajasthan) suggests that the Harappans practiced plowing to prepare fields for sowing.
• Wooden Plows: Likely used for tilling the land, pulled by oxen or other domesticated animals.
• Crop Rotation & Mixed Cropping: Indications of growing multiple crops in the same fields to maintain soil fertility.

2. Irrigation & Water Management

• Canals & Wells: Harappans built wells and small canals for irrigation, especially in semi-arid regions like Harappa and Dholavira.
• Reservoirs & Water Storage:
• Dholavira (Gujarat) had one of the most advanced water conservation systems, with large reservoirs to store rainwater.
• Check dams were built to control water flow for agriculture.
• Floodplain Farming: Fields near rivers (Indus, Ravi, Sarasvati) were likely cultivated using floodwater irrigation.

3. Crop Cultivation & Domestication

• Major Crops:
• Wheat & Barley (staples, grown in dry areas).
• Rice (found at Lothal & Rangpur, Gujarat).
• Millets & Sorghum (in southern regions like Daimabad).
• Sesame & Mustard (used for oil extraction).
• Cotton (Harappans were the first to cultivate cotton, used for textiles).

4. Storage & Surplus Management

• Granaries: Large storage structures were found at Harappa & Mohenjo-Daro, indicating a centralized grain collection system.
• Mud-brick silos & bins: Used for storing surplus grains in rural and urban areas.
• Trade of Agricultural Goods: Surplus crops were traded with Mesopotamia and other regions.

5. Domestication of Animals for Farming

• Cattle (Zebu), buffaloes, sheep, and goats were used for plowing, transportation, and milk production.
• Bullock carts were commonly used for transporting farm produce.

6. Tools & Implements

• Copper & Stone Tools: Harappans used copper sickles, hoes, and axes for farming.
• Grinding Stones & Mortars: Used for processing grains and making flour.

Conclusion

The Harappans used efficient irrigation, plowing, and storage techniques, making them one of the earliest advanced agricultural societies. Their farming practices influenced later Indian civilizations, leaving a lasting legacy in South Asian agriculture.

Mohenjo-Daro: A Planned Urban City

Mohenjo-Daro, one of the most important cities of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) (2600–1900 BCE), was a well-planned urban center located in present-day Sindh, Pakistan. It showcased advanced town planning, sanitation, and public architecture, reflecting the high level of socio-economic organization of the Harappans.

Two Sections of Settlement

Mohenjo-Daro was divided into two main sections:

1. Citadel (Smaller but Higher Section)

• Built on a raised platform (artificial mound), likely for defensive and administrative purposes.
• Contained important public buildings and structures:
• Great Bath – A large, rectangular water tank, possibly used for ritualistic or ceremonial bathing.
• Granary – A massive storage facility, likely used to store surplus grains.
• Assembly Halls – Large pillared structures, possibly used for gatherings or administrative meetings.
• Fire Altars – Evidence of religious or ritualistic activities.

2. Lower Town (Larger but Lower Section)

• The residential and commercial area, built on a lower level than the Citadel.
• Featured multi-roomed houses, some with courtyards and private wells.
• Grid-pattern streets intersecting at right angles, dividing the city into blocks.
• Advanced drainage system with covered sewers and soak pits, demonstrating knowledge of urban sanitation.

Town Planning & Architectural Features

• Burnt Brick Houses – Standardized and uniformly sized bricks were used in construction.
• Wide, Straight Roads – Laid in a north-south and east-west grid pattern.
• Underground Drainage – A sophisticated system of brick-lined drains connected to houses.
• Public Wells & Bathing Areas – Indicating an advanced understanding of hygiene and water management.

Conclusion

Mohenjo-Daro was one of the world's earliest planned cities, with a structured division of administrative, residential, and commercial zones. Its remarkable drainage system, organized streets, and monumental structures reflect a highly developed urban civilization.

Drainage System in Harappa

The drainage system of Harappa is one of the most remarkable and advanced features of the Indus Valley Civilization (2600–1900 BCE). The Harappans exhibited an impressive understanding of urban planning and sanitation, with their drainage systems serving as an example of early civil engineering.

Key Features of Harappan Drainage System

1. Extensive and Well-Designed Networks

• Street Drains:
• The streets of Harappa were equipped with covered drains that ran along the sides of the roads.
• Drains were constructed using baked bricks, which were highly durable and resistant to wear.
• Open drains were connected to smaller drains running along the houses.
• The streets were sloped to allow water to flow towards these drains, ensuring proper water flow and waste disposal.
• Lateral Drains & Soak Pits:
• Smaller, lateral drains connected the main drains to soak pits and cesspits, helping in the absorption of wastewater into the ground.
• These soak pits were important for the sewage system, providing a way for waste to dissipate and preventing waterlogging.
• At some locations, the main drains had manholes or inspection holes, indicating regular maintenance and cleaning.

2. Drainage in Residential Areas

• Private Drainage for Homes:
• Wealthier homes had private drainage systems that connected directly to the main street drains.
• Bathing areas, toilets, and kitchens were likely equipped with drainage outlets, facilitating proper waste disposal.
• Some houses in Harappa had their own private wells and bathing platforms, connected to the drainage system, showcasing their focus on hygiene.
• Material & Construction:
• Drains were typically brick-lined and covered with stone or brick lids to prevent blockages and contamination.
• The sewerage system was advanced for its time, featuring well-structured, functional drains with effective water flow.

3. Waste Disposal and Water Supply

• Separate Systems for Drinking Water & Sewage:
• The Harappans maintained a clear distinction between water supply and sewage, ensuring that water sources remained clean and uncontaminated.
• Wells and public baths were separate from the drainage system, highlighting their understanding of hygiene and sanitation.
• Some settlements, such as Mohenjo-Daro, had public baths with advanced drainage systems designed for communal use, indicating a focus on public health.

4. Urban Planning and Drainage Integration

• Grid-based City Design:
• Harappa's grid-like city planning facilitated the integration of the drainage system within the streets.
• The north-south and east-west roads formed a perfect layout for the drainage network to flow evenly and effectively.
• Maintenance & Regular Cleaning:
• Evidence of manholes and inspection holes suggests that Harappans took measures for the regular maintenance and cleaning of the drains, ensuring smooth functioning over time.

5. Advanced Knowledge of Sanitation

• The complex drainage system reflects the Harappans' advanced knowledge of urban sanitation and their commitment to public hygiene.
• The city-wide drainage network shows that the Harappans likely valued cleanliness and had systems in place to manage water and waste efficiently.

Conclusion

The Harappan drainage system was a feat of ancient engineering, setting a benchmark for urban sanitation in the ancient world. Its extensive network of covered drains, soak pits, and separate water and sewage systems suggests that Harappa was an advanced and forward-thinking civilization, well ahead of its time in maintaining urban hygiene and public health.

Harappan Contact with Distant Lands

The Harappan Civilization (2600–1900 BCE) had extensive trade and cultural exchanges with distant regions, including Mesopotamia, Persia, Central Asia, and the Arabian Peninsula. These interactions were primarily driven by commerce, particularly in precious stones, metals, and agricultural products.

1. Trade with Mesopotamia (Sumerian Civilization)

• Harappans had strong trade relations with Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), as indicated by the discovery of Indus seals, pottery, and beads in Mesopotamian cities like Ur and Susa.
• Mesopotamian texts mention trade with a land called "Meluhha", which is widely believed to refer to the Indus region.
• Goods Traded:
• Exports from Harappa – Cotton textiles, beads, ivory, timber, lapis lazuli, carnelian, and shell objects.
• Imports from Mesopotamia – Silver, tin, wool, and dates.
• Ships & Maritime Trade:
• Evidence from Lothal (Gujarat) suggests a dockyard, indicating active sea trade.
• Harappans used seafaring routes along the Persian Gulf to reach Mesopotamia.

2. Trade with Persia (Iran) & Central Asia

• Contact with Elamite civilization (Iran) is suggested by the discovery of similar pottery and artifacts.
• Turquoise and lapis lazuli were imported from Afghanistan (Badakhshan mines).
• Trade routes passed through Baluchistan, connecting Harappa with Central Asia.

3. Trade with Arabian Peninsula & Oman

• Harappan artifacts found in Oman, Bahrain, and UAE suggest sea trade.
• Copper and diorite from Oman were imported into Harappa.
• Bahrain (ancient Dilmun) was an important intermediary in trade between Harappa and Mesopotamia.

4. Evidence of Long-Distance Trade

• Indus seals found in Mesopotamia indicate Harappan presence in distant markets.
• Standardized weights and measures suggest a sophisticated trade system.
• Ship depictions on seals and pottery confirm maritime trade activities.

Conclusion

The Harappans maintained strong trade networks with Mesopotamia, Persia, Central Asia, and the Arabian Peninsula. Their expertise in maritime trade, agriculture, and craft production helped them become a key player in the ancient world’s commercial landscape. These interactions contributed to the spread of ideas, technology, and cultural influences across regions.

Harappan Seals and Script

The Harappan seals and script are among the most significant discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilization (2600–1900 BCE). These artifacts provide valuable insights into their administrative, economic, and possibly religious practices. However, the Harappan script remains undeciphered, making it difficult to fully understand their language and writing system.

1. Harappan Seals

Features of the Seals

• Made primarily of steatite (soft stone), but also of terracotta, copper, faience, and ivory.
• Square or rectangular in shape, with a pictographic script and an engraved animal motif.
• Often had a perforated boss (back projection) for stringing or stamping onto goods.

Types of Seals

• Animal Seals: Depict animals like the unicorn, bull, elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, and crocodile.
• Unicorn Seal: The most common type, whose symbolic meaning remains unknown.
• Religious Seals: Some seals depict a seated yogic figure (possibly an early form of Shiva or a deity).
• Trade & Administrative Seals: Used for authentication, ownership marking, and trade regulation.

Purpose & Usage

• Commercial & Trade: Used as stamps or trademarks to mark goods and commodities.
• Identity & Ownership: Indicated the identity of merchants or officials.
• Religious & Ritualistic Purposes: Some seals might have been used in rituals or as amulets.

2. Harappan Script

Features of the Script

• Pictographic in nature, with around 400–450 unique symbols.
• Written in a right-to-left direction (confirmed by overlapping characters).
• Found on seals, pottery, copper plates, and tablets.
• Possibly logographic (each symbol representing a word) or syllabic in nature.

Challenges in Decipherment

• No bilingual inscriptions (like the Rosetta Stone for Egyptian hieroglyphs).
• Short inscriptions (mostly less than 10 characters), making grammatical analysis difficult.
• Unclear connection with known language families (Dravidian, Indo-Aryan, etc.).

Possible Functions of the Script

• Trade & Administration: Used for record-keeping, taxation, and commercial transactions.
• Religious & Ritualistic Uses: Some inscriptions might have religious significance.
• Personal Identification: Used on seals to indicate names or professions.

Conclusion

The Harappan seals and script played a crucial role in the trade, administration, and religious life of the civilization. However, without deciphering the script, a full understanding of their language and culture remains elusive.

End of the Harappan Civilization

The decline of the Harappan Civilization (2600–1900 BCE) remains one of the greatest mysteries of ancient history. Scholars believe that the civilization gradually declined rather than collapsing suddenly. The reasons for its decline are multifaceted, involving environmental, economic, and possibly social factors.

Phases of Decline

1. Mature Harappan Phase (2600–1900 BCE) – Peak of urban life with well-planned cities.
2. Late Harappan Phase (1900–1300 BCE) – Gradual decline marked by deurbanization, shifting settlements, and loss of trade networks.

Possible Causes of Decline

1. Environmental Changes

• Climate Change & Droughts:
• Studies suggest that the monsoon weakened around 2000 BCE, leading to droughts and water scarcity.
• Reduced rainfall could have affected agriculture, forcing people to abandon cities.
• Drying Up of Rivers:
• The Sarasvati River, believed to be a major source of water for Harappan settlements, is thought to have dried up or changed course.
• This would have caused water shortages and agricultural decline, leading to migration.
• Flooding & Natural Disasters:
• Some sites, like Mohenjo-Daro, show evidence of repeated floods due to the Indus River changing course.
• Earthquakes may have caused rivers to shift, leading to a decline in agriculture.

2. Economic Decline & Trade Disruptions

• Collapse of Mesopotamian Trade (1900 BCE):
• Harappans had strong trade ties with Mesopotamia, but after 1900 BCE, Mesopotamian records stop mentioning "Meluhha" (likely referring to the Indus region).
• The decline in international trade weakened the economy.
• Local Resource Depletion:
• Overuse of timber, minerals, and fertile land might have led to economic stress.
• Possible soil degradation due to over-farming.

3. Social & Political Factors

• Decline of Urban Centers:
• Large cities like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were abandoned, with populations migrating to rural areas.
• No evidence of large-scale warfare, suggesting a gradual, rather than violent, collapse.
• Decentralization:
• Cities lost their planned structure, and local cultures emerged in different regions.
• New regional cultures, like the Cemetery H Culture (Punjab) and the Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) Culture (Ganga-Yamuna Doab), replaced Harappan traditions.

4. Possible Aryan Migration Theory (Debated)

• Some scholars previously suggested that Aryan invaders might have contributed to the decline.
• However, there is no strong archaeological evidence of large-scale warfare or destruction.
• The decline of Harappa preceded Aryan settlements, suggesting a gradual internal decline rather than an external invasion.

Conclusion

The Harappan Civilization declined gradually, with a combination of climate change, economic problems, environmental shifts, and social transformations playing key roles. By 1300 BCE, urban centers were mostly abandoned, and the population dispersed into smaller rural settlements. However, Harappan cultural elements continued to influence later Indian civilizations, including the Vedic period.