NCERT Solutions Class 12 History Chapter 04 Thinkers, Beliefs, and Buildings Cultural Developments (c. 600 BCE - 600 CE)

Long Answer Type

(150 words approx.)

Q1

1. Were the ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers different from those of the fatalists and materialists? Give reasons for your answer.

The ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers shared some similarities with those of fatalists and materialists, but there were also differences.

• Upanishadic Thinkers: They emphasised the concept of atman (individual soul) and brahman (universal soul), arguing that liberation could be attained through knowledge (jnana), meditation, and renunciation of worldly desires. They believed in the law of karma and rebirth.
• Fatalists: They stressed destiny and inevitability, holding that human actions had little influence over outcomes.
• Materialists (Lokayatas/Charvakas): They denied the existence of an afterlife or soul and emphasised the physical elements — earth, water, fire, air, and space — as the basis of life.

Thus, while Upanishadic philosophy was rooted in spiritual inquiry and renunciation, materialists focused on worldly reality, and fatalists stressed destiny. The overlap lay in their attempts to question rituals and search for meaning in existence.

Q2

2. Summarise the central teachings of Jainism.

The central teachings of Jainism can be summarised as follows:

1. All beings are animated: Jains believed that not only humans and animals, but also plants, water, and stones had life.
2. Ahimsa (non-violence): The most important principle was complete non-injury to all living beings. Killing even small creatures was avoided.
3. Karma and rebirth: Jainism taught that actions (karma) determined the cycle of birth and rebirth. Liberation (moksha) could be attained only by purifying oneself from accumulated karma.
4. Asceticism and penance: Renunciation of worldly life and austerity were central.
5. Monastic life: The path to salvation required joining the monastic order and following strict discipline.

Hence, Jainism emphasised non-violence, renunciation, and rigorous discipline as the way to liberation.

Q3

3. Discuss the role of the begums of Bhopal in preserving the stupa at Sanchi.

The survival and preservation of the Sanchi stupa owes much to the patronage of the Begums of Bhopal in the 19th century.

1. Financial Support: Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum funded major conservation projects at Sanchi.
2. Museum and Guesthouse: They financed the construction of a museum near the site to house artefacts and also built a guesthouse for visitors and scholars.
3. Encouraging Scholarship: They supported the publication of research volumes and writings on Sanchi, helping spread awareness of its historical importance.
4. Legacy of Preservation: At a time when many ancient monuments were neglected, their efforts ensured that Sanchi remained one of the best-preserved Buddhist sites in India.

Thus, the Begums of Bhopal played a pioneering role in conserving India’s ancient Buddhist heritage.

Q4

4. Read this short inscription and answer:

(i) How did Dhanavati date her inscription?
She dated it to the 33rd year of Maharaja Huvishka’s reign, in the first month of the hot season, on the eighth day.

(ii) Why do you think she installed an image of the Bodhisatta?
It reflected the rising importance of Mahayana Buddhism, where Bodhisattas were venerated as compassionate beings guiding others to salvation.

(iii) Who were the relatives she mentioned?
She mentioned her mother’s sister, Buddhamita, a bhikkhuni (nun) well-versed in the Tipitaka, along with her own parents.

(iv) What Buddhist text did she know?
She knew the Tipitaka, the Buddhist canon.

(v) From whom did she learn this text?
She learned it from Buddhamita, her aunt and teacher.

Q5

5. Why do you think women and men joined the sangha?

There were multiple reasons why women and men joined the Buddhist sangha:

1. Search for truth and peace: Many sought a life devoted to meditation and righteousness.
2. Renunciation of worldly life: Individuals who wished to give up material pleasures found a disciplined life in the sangha.
3. Role as teachers: Monks and nuns could become teachers and spread Buddhist teachings.
4. Equality and dignity: The sangha offered opportunities for women, slaves, and low-caste individuals who found limited space in Brahmanical society.
5. Simple lifestyle: The peaceful and austere monastic life attracted many.

Thus, the sangha became a refuge for those seeking spiritual growth, simplicity, and liberation from social hierarchies.

Essay Type Questions

(500 words approx.)

Q6

6. To what extent does knowledge of Buddhist literature help in understanding the sculpture at Sanchi?

Buddhist literature provides essential insights for interpreting the sculptures and symbolism at Sanchi.

1. Symbolic representation of Buddha:

• Early Buddhist art avoided depicting Buddha in human form. Instead, symbols like the empty seat (his enlightenment), the tree (Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya), and the stupa (his final nirvana) were used.
• Knowledge of Buddhist texts helps historians connect these symbols with episodes from Buddha’s life.

2. Stories from the Jatakas:

• The gateways (toranas) at Sanchi depict various Jataka tales — stories of Buddha’s previous births.
• Without familiarity with Buddhist literature, it would be difficult to decode scenes like the monkey offering honey to Buddha or King Shibi sacrificing himself for a dove.

3. Mahayana influence:

• Later additions to Sanchi show depictions of Bodhisattas, reflecting the Mahayana tradition described in Buddhist texts.

4. Rituals and practices:

• Texts describe rituals like pradakshina (circumambulation), which explains the circular pathways around the stupa.

5. Decoding inscriptions:

• Many inscriptions mention donors — monks, nuns, laymen, and even artisans — confirming what texts tell us about the broad social base of Buddhism.

Conclusion:
Without Buddhist literature, the meaning of the sculptures and architectural features at Sanchi would remain obscure. Texts and material remains together give a holistic understanding of early Buddhism.

Q7

7. Discuss the development in sculpture and architecture associated with the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism.

The rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism during the early centuries CE led to important changes in Indian sculpture and temple architecture.

1. Temples for deities:

• Unlike Buddhist stupas, Hindu traditions required enshrining deities.
• The earliest temples consisted of small square rooms (garbhagriha) housing the main deity.

2. Architectural features:

• A single doorway allowed devotees to enter and worship.
• Gradually, temples acquired a tall superstructure (shikhara) above the shrine, giving them a distinct form.
• The temple became a sacred space symbolising a cosmic centre.

3. Sculptural traditions:

• Walls and doorways were richly decorated with sculptures of deities, attendants, and mythological stories.
• Vaishnava sculptures depicted Vishnu’s incarnations (like the boar Varaha rescuing the Earth), while Shaiva art depicted Shiva as Nataraja or in lingam form.

4. Growth of patronage:

• Rulers and wealthy patrons funded temple building as expressions of piety and legitimacy.

Conclusion:
The development of Hindu temple architecture and sculpture marked a major cultural shift. Temples became centres of devotion and community, reflecting the growing importance of Vaishnavism and Shaivism.

Q8

8. Discuss how and why stupas were built.
9. Meaning and origin:

• The word stupa means “heap.” The earliest stupas were simple mounds built over the relics of the Buddha or monks.

2. Architectural features:

• The basic form was a hemispherical mound (anda) topped by a square railing (harmika) symbolising heaven.
• A central mast (yashti) arose from the harmika, with umbrellas (chatris) symbolising royalty and protection.
• Pathways and railings were added for devotees to perform circumambulation (pradakshina).
• Gateways (toranas) were decorated with carvings of stories and symbols.

3. Purpose:

• Stupas enshrined sacred relics and became sites of pilgrimage and devotion.
• They expressed both religious piety and political authority, as rulers funded their construction to gain legitimacy.

4. Spread and evolution:

• Initially simple, stupas became more elaborate over time, balancing round and square structures.
• Their construction spread with Buddhism across India and into Central and Southeast Asia.

Conclusion:
Stupas were built as religious monuments to honour Buddha and his teachings. They combined architectural symbolism, devotional practice, and royal patronage, becoming key centres of Buddhist culture.

Q9

9. Discuss the extent to which knowledge of the Mahabharata helps historians reconstruct early Indian society.

(This is the essay-type question implied in continuation — I included it for completeness.)

The Mahabharata, one of India’s greatest epics, is not only a literary text but also a source for reconstructing early Indian society (c. 600 BCE–600 CE).

1. Social organisation:

• The text reflects the patriarchal system and importance of patriliny. Inheritance was emphasised through sons, especially among elites.
• It also records debates on marriage practices — such as endogamy, exogamy, and inter-varna unions — showing both norms and their violations.

2. Varna and caste:

• The epic reflects Brahmanical ideas of four varnas, but also contains stories (e.g., Eklavya, Matanga) that highlight tensions and challenges to these norms.
• It shows how outsiders like Nagas and forest-dwellers interacted with settled society.

3. Gender relations:

• The position of women is depicted through figures like Draupadi, Kunti, and Hidimba. It reveals both constraints and agency of women.

4. Political life:

• The central story of dynastic conflict reflects royal succession, importance of kinship, and duties of kings.
• It also highlights the role of teachers, priests, and advisers.

5. Ethical concerns:

• The text discusses dharma (duty, morality) in varied contexts, showing the complexities of social and personal choices.

Conclusion:
The Mahabharata is not a factual chronicle, but it provides rich material on early social life, kinship, varna, and values. Historians use it alongside inscriptions and archaeology to reconstruct early Indian society.