NCERT Made Easy CONTEMPORARY SOUTH ASIA CBSE Political Science Class 12 Contemporary World Politics Chapter 03

NCERT Made Easy CONTEMPORARY SOUTH ASIA CBSE Political Science Class 12 Contemporary World Politics Chapter 03

Overview

1. Geopolitical Importance of South Asia

South Asia, as a region, has become a focal point of global attention, especially after India and Pakistan's nuclearization. This strategic shift not only intensified regional tensions but also placed the region at the center of international diplomatic and security concerns. South Asia’s significance goes beyond nuclear capabilities; it is home to a complex tapestry of conflicts and opportunities.

1. The Conflicts of South Asia

South Asia is a region marked by multiple conflicts that include:

• Border disputes, such as the longstanding India-Pakistan conflict over Kashmir.
• Water-sharing issues, particularly over the Indus River between India and Pakistan.
• Insurgencies and ethnic strife, including the ongoing conflict in Sri Lanka (historical Tamil rebellion), and Nepal's Maoist insurgency.
• Resource sharing conflicts, including tensions over natural resources like water, energy, and land.

These disputes create an environment of instability, leading to the region being classified as turbulent in global geopolitics.

2. The Potential for Cooperation and Development

Despite the challenges, South Asia also holds immense potential for growth and cooperation. If the countries in the region can overcome historical enmities and work towards common goals, they could unlock opportunities for:

• Economic development,
• Shared regional security,
• Cultural exchange and collaboration.
  Many people in South Asia recognize this potential, emphasizing the need for cooperation rather than conflict.

In this chapter, we will examine both the conflict and cooperation that define the region and explore how domestic politics in each country influence regional relations. The dynamic nature of domestic politics is a key factor in shaping the external relations of South Asian states.

What Is South Asia?

1. Understanding South Asia's Geography and Composition

South Asia is a region defined by both its geography and political dynamics. Geographically, the region is distinct due to its natural boundaries and the linguistic, cultural, and social diversity within it.

1. Countries of South Asia

South Asia is typically considered to include the following countries:

• Bangladesh
• Bhutan
• India
• The Maldives
• Nepal
• Pakistan
• Sri Lanka

Together, these nations form a collective geopolitical entity that has shared historical, cultural, and economic ties, yet they also experience stark contrasts in governance, development, and social structures.

2. Geographical Boundaries and Natural Insularity

• To the north, the region is bordered by the Himalayas, providing a natural barrier from China and Central Asia.
• To the south, the vast expanse of the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea, and the Bay of Bengal isolates the region, contributing to its unique cultural development.
• The western and eastern boundaries of South Asia are less clearly defined, particularly with Afghanistan to the west and Myanmar to the east, which are sometimes included in broader discussions of South Asia.
• China, while playing an influential role in the region’s geopolitics, is not considered part of South Asia in the strictest sense.

3. Cultural and Linguistic Diversity

• South Asia is known for its tremendous diversity, encompassing a variety of languages, religions, and ethnic groups. This diversity often translates into both cooperation and conflict among the countries.
• The region has several major religions (Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, and Christianity) and a wide range of linguistic groups, including Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, and Tibeto-Burman languages.

1. Political Systems in South Asia: A Mixed Landscape

South Asia presents a complex political landscape, with each country having its own unique journey towards governance and democracy. While some have thrived under democratic rule, others have struggled with military coups and authoritarianism.

1. India and Sri Lanka: Stable Democracies

• India: India has been a democracy since its independence in 1947, making it the world's largest democracy. Although India has faced various challenges such as communal tensions, regional disparities, and political corruption, it has remained a functioning democracy throughout its history.
• Sri Lanka: Similarly, Sri Lanka has maintained a democratic system since gaining independence in 1948. Despite a brutal civil war (1983-2009) between the government and Tamil separatists, Sri Lanka has managed to maintain democratic structures post-war, though issues of ethnic tensions and authoritarian tendencies persist.

2. Pakistan and Bangladesh: Mixed Experiences

• Pakistan has seen both civilian and military rule. After several periods of military rule, it has been under civilian governance since 2008. The country's history includes the 1971 East Pakistan separation (leading to the creation of Bangladesh), military coups, and democratic transitions.
• Bangladesh has experienced periods of military rule as well but has seen democratic rule in recent decades, emerging as a democracy after the 1991 restoration. The country has made significant strides in terms of economic growth, although it still faces challenges such as political instability and corruption.

3. Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives: Transitions to Democracy

• Nepal transitioned from a constitutional monarchy to a democratic republic in 2008, after years of political instability and a Maoist insurgency.
• Bhutan emerged as a constitutional monarchy in 2008 and transitioned into a multi-party democracy under the leadership of its king, marking a significant shift towards democracy in the region.
• The Maldives was a Sultanate until 1968, after which it became a republic. The country saw significant political change when a multi-party system was introduced in 2005, followed by democratic elections in subsequent years.

1. The Aspiration for Democracy Across South Asia

Despite the mixed political records, there is a strong aspiration for democracy across South Asia. A survey of public opinion in the region has shown that:

• Citizens across South Asia, from India to Bangladesh, support democratic governance.
• People, regardless of social class, religion, or economic status, express a preference for democracy over any other form of governance, reflecting a significant shift from earlier views that democracy could only work in wealthier nations.
• In the five large countries (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal), there is widespread support for representative democracy, with citizens believing it is the most suitable form of government for their countries.

1. Key Takeaways for Better Retention

• South Asia is a geopolitically significant region with a history of conflict but also the potential for cooperation and growth.
• The region is culturally and politically diverse, with each country having a different experience with democracy and governance.
• Despite setbacks, there is a strong aspiration for democracy in the region, driven by public support for democratic principles.
• Geography, culture, and politics play a crucial role in shaping the interactions and relations between countries in South Asia.

The Military and Democracy in Pakistan

1. Emergence of Pakistan and Its Political Struggles

1.1 Formation of Pakistan

• Pakistan was created on 14 August 1947 following the Two-Nation Theory led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, which proposed separate nations for Hindus and Muslims.
• It was carved out of British India as a Muslim-majority state.

1.2 Early Challenges and Power Struggles

• Since its inception, Pakistan has experienced a constant power struggle between civilian democratic governments and military rulers.
• The country has faced multiple military coups and interruptions in democratic processes.

2. Chronology of Military and Civilian Rule in Pakistan

2.1 Military Rule under General Ayub Khan (1958–1969)

• In 1958, General Ayub Khan seized power in Pakistan’s first military coup and later became the President.
• During his tenure:
• The Indo-Pak war of 1965 was fought.
• The Tashkent Agreement (10 January 1966) was signed between India and Pakistan to restore peace, mediated by the Soviet Union.

2.2 General Yahya Khan and the Breakup of Pakistan (1969–1971)

• Ayub Khan was succeeded by General Yahya Khan on 31 March 1969.
• Under his rule:
• Political unrest and ethnic tensions escalated in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).
• The denial of political power to the Bengali majority led to a civil war and intervention by India.
• East Pakistan became Bangladesh after the Indo-Pak war of 1971.

2.3 Democratic Rule under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (1971–1977)

• After the war, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto took over as the civilian Prime Minister.
• Key events during his tenure:
• Signing of the Shimla Agreement (2 July 1972) with Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, promoting bilateral peace.
• Bhutto attempted to rebuild Pakistan but faced political unrest and was overthrown.

2.4 Military Regime of General Zia-ul-Haq (1977–1988)

• General Zia-ul-Haq ousted Bhutto in a military coup in July 1977.
• Bhutto was later executed on 4 April 1979.
• Zia’s regime promoted Islamization and was marked by U.S. support during the Soviet-Afghan War.
• Zia died in a mysterious air crash on 17 August 1988.

2.5 Return to Democracy: Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif (1988–1999)

• Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar Bhutto, became the first woman Prime Minister of a Muslim country in 1988.
• Power alternated between her and Nawaz Sharif, but both faced allegations of corruption and were dismissed before completing their terms.

2.6 Military Coup by General Pervez Musharraf (1999–2008)

• In October 1999, General Pervez Musharraf staged a coup and removed Nawaz Sharif.
• He became President of Pakistan in 2001.
• Notable events during his rule:
• Kargil War in 1999 during Nawaz Sharif’s last term.
• Lahore Declaration signed on 21 February 1999 to ease tensions.
• Agra Summit held from 14–16 July 2001, but ended without major outcomes.

2.7 Assassination of Benazir Bhutto and Democratic Transition (2007–2008)

• Benazir Bhutto was assassinated on 27 December 2007 at Liaquat Bagh, Rawalpindi, during an election rally.
• Her death marked a tragic turn in Pakistan’s democratic journey.
• On 25 March 2008, a new democratically elected government was formed, ending nearly a decade of military rule.

2.8 Rise of Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI)

• PTI (Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf) was founded by Imran Khan on 25 April 1996.
• The party boycotted the 2008 elections but gradually gained popularity.
• In the 2013 elections, PTI emerged as the second-largest party.
• In the 2018 general elections (held on 25 July 2018), PTI formed the government, and Imran Khan became Prime Minister.

3. Causes of Civil-Military Tensions in Pakistan

The military has historically intervened in governance due to several factors:

Internal Factors

1. a) Indo-Pak wars (especially 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999) increased the military’s power and legitimacy.
   b) The military is seen as a stabilizing force, often more organized than weak or corrupt civilian governments.
   c) Dominance of the military, clergy, and landowning elites in society hinders democratic development.
   d) Corruption and inefficiency of political parties undermined public confidence in elected governments.

External Factors

1. e) Support from the U.S. and Western powers during the Cold War and the War on Terror helped consolidate military power.
2. Areas of Conflict Between India and Pakistan

The two countries have had many disputes since partition:

1. a) Safety of religious places and minorities post-partition
   b) Recovery of abducted women after the 1947 partition violence
   c) Transfer of military installations and hardware
   d) Division of moveable properties and administrative setup
   e) Cash balances and treasury division
   f) Balance of payments and financial settlements of undivided India
   g) River water sharing disputes, especially over Indus rivers
   h) The Jammu and Kashmir dispute, the most persistent and violent point of conflict
2. Major Agreements Between India and Pakistan

Several efforts have been made to ease tensions and resolve conflicts:

1. Indus Water Treaty (1960) – Brokered by the World Bank, it governs river water sharing.
2. Tashkent Agreement (1966) – Post-1965 war peace agreement signed in Tashkent, USSR.
3. Shimla Agreement (1972) – Following the 1971 war, both countries agreed to peaceful bilateral resolutions.
4. Lahore Bus Yatra (1999) – A goodwill initiative led by Indian PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
5. Agra Summit (2001) – Attempted dialogue between Musharraf and Vajpayee, which ended inconclusively.
6. Track-II Diplomacy – Informal dialogue involving academics, retired officials, and civil society members.
7. Cricket Diplomacy – Bilateral cricket series often used to soften diplomatic tensions.

Democracy in Bangladesh

4.1 Historical Background: East Pakistan (1947–1971)

• After the partition of British India in 1947, East Bengal (now Bangladesh) became East Pakistan, a geographically separated part of the newly formed Pakistan.
• East Pakistan was composed of Muslim-majority areas of Bengal and Assam from British India.
• Despite having a larger population, East Pakistan faced political and economic domination by West Pakistan (present-day Pakistan).

Key Grievances of East Pakistan:

• Imposition of Urdu as the sole national language, ignoring the Bengali language spoken by the majority.
• Unequal political representation and economic exploitation by the West Pakistani elite.
• Cultural marginalization of the Bengali identity, leading to large-scale dissatisfaction.

4.2 Rise of the Autonomy Movement

• Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, leader of the Awami League, emerged as the voice of East Pakistan.
• He demanded greater autonomy for the eastern region through his Six-Point Movement (1966), which called for:
1. Federal structure with parliamentary system.
2. Control of the economy and trade by East Pakistan.
3. Separate currencies or fiscal policy.
4. Control over taxation and revenue.
5. Separate foreign exchange reserves.
6. Control of paramilitary forces and police.

1970 Elections and Crisis:

• In the 1970 general elections of Pakistan:
• The Awami League won 160 out of 162 seats in East Pakistan.
• It secured a majority in the national assembly of Pakistan.
• However, the West Pakistani leadership refused to recognize this mandate and did not convene the assembly.
• Sheikh Mujib was arrested, triggering widespread civil disobedience in East Pakistan.

4.3 Liberation War and Formation of Bangladesh (1971)

• General Yahya Khan, the military ruler of Pakistan, ordered a crackdown on the Bengali movement.
• The Pakistan army launched Operation Searchlight in March 1971, resulting in mass killings and human rights violations.
• This violence led to a refugee crisis, with nearly 10 million people fleeing to India.

India’s Role:

• India, under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, extended moral, financial, and military support to the Bengali cause.
• In December 1971, war broke out between India and Pakistan.
• On 16 December 1971, the Pakistani army surrendered in Dhaka, and Bangladesh was officially created as an independent nation.

4.4 Early Years of Independent Bangladesh

• Bangladesh adopted a Constitution in 1972 based on the principles of:
• Secularism
• Democracy
• Socialism
• Nationalism
• Sheikh Mujibur Rahman became the first Prime Minister.

Shift Toward Authoritarianism:

• In 1975, Mujib amended the Constitution to:
• Shift from a parliamentary to a presidential system.
• Ban all political parties except the Awami League.
• Create a one-party state under BAKSAL (Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League).
• These moves led to unrest and authoritarian rule.

4.5 Military Coups and Political Instability (1975–1990)

Assassination of Sheikh Mujib:

• On 15 August 1975, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and most of his family members were assassinated in a military coup.

Rule of Ziaur Rahman:

• Major General Ziaur Rahman took over power and later:
• Founded the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) in 1978.
• Introduced multi-party elections in 1979 and won.
• Was assassinated in 1981 in another coup attempt.

Rule of H. M. Ershad:

• Lt. General Hussain Muhammad Ershad took power in 1982 through a bloodless coup.
• Ershad declared himself President in 1983 and formed the Jatiya Party.
• Limited political activity was allowed during his tenure.

Pro-Democracy Movement:

• During the late 1980s, public discontent grew.
• Students, civil society, and opposition parties launched mass protests demanding democracy.
• In 1990, due to intense public pressure, Ershad resigned from office.

4.6 Return to Democracy (1991 Onwards)

• Democratic elections were held in 1991, marking the restoration of representative democracy.
• Since then, Bangladesh has followed a multi-party democratic system with regular elections.

Political Landscape:

• Two major political parties dominate:
• Awami League (AL) – led by Sheikh Hasina (daughter of Mujibur Rahman).
• Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) – previously led by Khaleda Zia, widow of Ziaur Rahman.
• The country has witnessed bitter rivalry, frequent strikes, and allegations of electoral manipulation.
• Despite challenges, democratic institutions have persisted, and voter turnout has remained high in most elections.

4.7 Political Instability and Emergency Rule (2006–2008)

• The rivalry between Awami League (AL) and Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) intensified after 1991.
• By late 2006, widespread:
• Political violence
• Allegations of electoral manipulation
• Corruption
• Led to growing instability.
• In January 2007, a state of emergency was declared.
• A military-backed caretaker government ruled until 2008.

4.8 Return of Awami League and Recent Developments

• In the December 2008 general elections, the Awami League, led by Sheikh Hasina, won a landslide victory.
• Major developments since then:
• In 2011, the caretaker government provision in the Constitution was abolished, raising concerns about election fairness.
• In the 2014 elections, the BNP boycotted, resulting in the Awami League winning uncontested in many constituencies.
• In 2018, national elections were again held; the Awami League returned to power.
• The Jatiya Party, led by Hussain Muhammad Ershad, emerged as the main opposition with 22 seats.

4.9 Political Upheaval and Interim Government (2024–2025)

• In January 2024, Sheikh Hasina secured a fourth consecutive term amid a widely boycotted election.
• By July 2024, student-led protests erupted over public sector job quotas, escalating into broader anti-government demonstrations.
• On 5 August 2024, facing mounting pressure, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina resigned and fled to India.
• An interim government, led by Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus, was established on 8 August 2024, with a mandate to implement reforms and organize elections.
• In May 2025, the Election Commission suspended the Awami League's registration, effectively barring it from participating in future elections, citing national security concerns and ongoing war crimes investigations.
• The International Crimes Tribunal initiated proceedings against Sheikh Hasina and other party leaders for alleged crimes against humanity during the 2024 protests.
• The Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) has returned to prominence, with Khaleda Zia's return to Dhaka in May 2025 intensifying political dynamics

Monarchy and Democracy in Nepal

5.1 Historical Background: From Hindu Kingdom to Constitutional Monarchy

• Nepal, for centuries, was a Hindu monarchy ruled by the Shah dynasty.
• It remained isolated from global politics until the mid-20th century.
• In 1951, a popular movement ended the autocratic Rana rule, but real democracy did not emerge.
• By the 1990s, Nepal had become a constitutional monarchy, with multi-party democracy under King Birendra.
• Despite the constitutional setup, the monarch retained immense power, often undermining democratic processes.

5.2 Democratic Movement and the 1990 Constitution

• In 1990, a powerful pro-democracy movement—a joint effort of political parties and civil society—pressured the monarchy to adopt a new democratic constitution.
• As a result:
• Nepal became a constitutional monarchy with a multi-party parliamentary system.
• King Birendra accepted the new political arrangement, but democracy remained fragile.

5.3 Rise of Maoist Insurgency (1996–2006)

• In 1996, the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) launched a “People’s War” aiming to:
• Abolish the monarchy.
• Establish a people’s republic.
• End social, economic, and caste inequalities.
• The Maoists gradually gained control over large parts of rural Nepal.
• Nepal plunged into a decade-long civil war (1996–2006), resulting in:
• Over 17,000 deaths.
• Disruption of governance.
• Widespread displacement.

5.4 Royal Coup and Crisis of Democracy (2001–2006)

• In 2001, King Birendra and most of the royal family were assassinated in the palace massacre.
• His brother Gyanendra became king and adopted an authoritarian stance.
• In 2002, King Gyanendra:
• Dissolved the elected Parliament.
• Assumed executive powers, suspending democracy.
• In February 2005, he staged a royal coup, dismissed the Prime Minister, and took direct control of the government.

5.5 People’s Movement II (2006): Collapse of Monarchy’s Authority

• In April 2006, massive nationwide protests erupted under the People’s Movement II (Loktantra Andolan).
• Led by the Seven Party Alliance (SPA) and Maoists, supported by civil society.
• Key outcomes:
• King Gyanendra was forced to reinstate Parliament.
• The monarchy’s political legitimacy collapsed.
• Maoists agreed to enter mainstream politics and cease armed conflict.

5.6 Abolition of Monarchy and Declaration of Republic (2008)

• In 2007, an interim constitution was adopted, establishing Nepal as a secular federal republic.
• In 2008, the Constituent Assembly (CA):
• Abolished the 240-year-old monarchy.
• Declared Nepal a democratic republic.
• The last king, Gyanendra, stepped down and left the royal palace.

5.7 Drafting and Promulgation of the New Constitution (2015)

• Nepal experienced political instability and disagreements among major parties (Maoists, Nepali Congress, UML).
• After several delays, on 20 September 2015, a new Constitution was promulgated, which:
• Defined Nepal as a federal democratic republic.
• Established a multi-tier governance system: federal, provincial, and local.
• Guaranteed fundamental rights, secularism, and inclusion of minorities and marginalized communities.
• However, Madhesi and Janajati groups expressed dissatisfaction, alleging exclusion and unfair demarcation of provinces.

5.8 Political Developments (2017–2021): Elections and Instability

• In the 2017 general elections, the Left Alliance (CPN-UML and CPN-Maoist Centre) won a landslide victory.
• K.P. Sharma Oli became Prime Minister.
• In 2018, the two parties merged to form the Nepal Communist Party (NCP).
• However, political rifts emerged:
• Oli dissolved Parliament twice (2020 & 2021), both actions were nullified by the Supreme Court.
• In March 2021, the NCP was invalidated by the court; the old parties (CPN-UML and CPN-MC) were reinstated.
• Result: Political instability, cabinet reshuffles, and loss of public trust.

5.9 Recent Political Changes (2022–2025)

➤ 2022 General Elections

• Held in November 2022.
• Outcome:
• No party secured an outright majority.
• A coalition government was formed under Pushpa Kamal Dahal “Prachanda” with the support of Nepali Congress and other smaller parties.
• Political alliances shifted frequently post-election, reflecting continued instability.

➤ 2023–2024: Coalition Struggles and Governance Challenges

• The coalition government witnessed frequent internal conflicts over power-sharing.
• Corruption, inflation, and unemployment remained major public concerns.
• Protests by youth groups and civil society intensified against rising authoritarianism and misgovernance.

➤ 2024–2025: Rising Public Demand for Reforms

• Amid growing public dissatisfaction, calls for:
• Electoral reforms.
• Greater autonomy to provinces.
• Transparency and decentralization.
• Efforts are underway in the Federal Parliament to revise constitutional provisions to improve federalism and inclusiveness.

✅ Summary: Key Milestones in Nepal’s Democratic Journey

🔍 Challenges Facing Nepal’s Democracy

1. Political fragmentation and unstable coalitions.
2. Lack of trust in political leadership.
3. Exclusion of ethnic minorities from meaningful representation.
4. Corruption and weak governance mechanisms.
5. Strained civil-military relations and power imbalance.
6. Dependency on foreign aid and geopolitical balancing (especially India and China).

Nepal's transition from a monarchy to a democratic republic is a rare and significant example of peaceful mass mobilization and inclusive constitution-making, though the road ahead remains challenging. Strengthening democratic institutions and ensuring inclusivity are key to Nepal’s political stability and growth.

Ethnic Conflict and Democracy in Sri Lanka

6.1 Post-Independence Ethnic Tensions (1948–1983)

• Independence and Early Politics: Sri Lanka, formerly Ceylon, gained independence from Britain in 1948. The political landscape was dominated by the majority Sinhalese community, leading to policies favoring their interests.
• Discrimination Against Tamils: The Tamil minority, including Indian Tamils brought during colonial times, faced systemic discrimination. Key issues included:
• The Sinhala Only Act of 1956, making Sinhala the sole official language.
• Citizenship laws rendering many Indian Tamils stateless.
• Limited access to education and government employment for Tamils.
• Rise of Tamil Nationalism: These grievances led to the emergence of Tamil political movements demanding equal rights and, eventually, autonomy.

6.2 Civil War and the LTTE (1983–2009)

• Black July and Escalation: In July 1983, anti-Tamil riots, known as Black July, resulted in widespread violence against Tamils, marking the beginning of a protracted civil war.
• Formation of the LTTE: The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) emerged as the primary militant group seeking an independent Tamil state, Tamil Eelam, in the north and east.
• Indian Involvement: In 1987, India and Sri Lanka signed the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord, leading to the deployment of the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF). However, the IPKF became embroiled in conflict with the LTTE and withdrew in 1990.
• End of the Civil War: After decades of conflict, the Sri Lankan military defeated the LTTE in May 2009, killing its leader, Velupillai Prabhakaran, effectively ending the civil war.

6.3 Post-War Developments and Reconciliation Efforts (2009–2023)

• Reconstruction and Resettlement: Post-war, the government focused on rebuilding infrastructure and resettling displaced populations. However, concerns arose over:
• Militarization of former conflict zones.
• Land appropriation by the military, hindering the return of displaced Tamils.
• Limited progress in accountability for wartime human rights violations.
• International Pressure: Global entities, including the United Nations, urged Sri Lanka to address human rights concerns and implement genuine reconciliation measures.
• Domestic Challenges: Despite economic growth, issues like ethnic polarization, press freedom restrictions, and lack of political reforms persisted.

6.4 Recent Political Changes and Ethnic Relations (2024–2025)

• 2024 Elections and Political Shift:
• In September 2024, Anura Kumara Dissanayake of the National People's Power (NPP) coalition won the presidential election with 42% of the vote, marking a significant departure from traditional political elites.
• The NPP secured a two-thirds majority in parliament, winning 159 out of 225 seats, enabling substantial legislative reforms.
• Policy Focus:
• The new government emphasized anti-corruption, economic reform, and social justice.
• Efforts were made to reduce ethnic disparities, including initiatives to return military-occupied lands to Tamil civilians.
• Challenges and Criticisms:
• Despite reforms, economic hardships continued, with high inflation and unemployment rates.
• Tamil communities expressed skepticism about the government's commitment to genuine reconciliation and accountability for past abuses.
• Commemorations of LTTE members led to heightened tensions and increased security measures in Tamil-majority areas.

6.5 Ongoing Issues and the Path Forward

• Reconciliation Efforts:
• The government introduced the Commission for Truth, Unity, and Reconciliation in early 2024 to address wartime grievances. However, its credibility was questioned due to limited consultations and perceived lack of independence.
• Human Rights Concerns:
• Cases like the disappearance of journalist Prageeth Ekneligoda remained unresolved, highlighting challenges in ensuring justice and press freedom.
• Economic Recovery:
• The government faced the daunting task of restructuring external debt and implementing IMF-backed austerity measures, which, while necessary, led to public dissatisfaction.

6.6 Summary of Key Events

Sri Lanka's journey illustrates the complexities of maintaining democracy amid ethnic tensions and post-conflict challenges. While recent political shifts offer hope for inclusive governance, sustained efforts are essential to address historical grievances, ensure justice, and promote national unity.

India–Pakistan Conflicts: Historical Context and Recent Developments

7.1 Origins of the Conflict: Partition and Kashmir Dispute

• Partition of British India (1947): The division led to the creation of India and Pakistan, sowing seeds of discord, particularly over princely states like Jammu and Kashmir.
• First Indo-Pak War (1947–48): Triggered by tribal invasions supported by Pakistan, leading to the Maharaja of Kashmir acceding to India. The war concluded with the establishment of the Line of Control (LoC), dividing the region between the two nations.
• Subsequent Wars:
• Second War (1965): Centered on Kashmir, resulting in a stalemate and the Tashkent Agreement.
• Third War (1971): Led to the creation of Bangladesh; however, the Kashmir issue remained unresolved.

7.2 Strategic and Military Tensions

• Siachen Glacier Conflict: Since 1984, both countries have maintained military presence in this high-altitude region, leading to ongoing skirmishes.
• Nuclear Arms Race:
• India's Nuclear Test (1998): Conducted in Pokhran.
• Pakistan's Response: Nuclear tests in Chagai Hills, establishing both as nuclear-armed states.
• Kargil Conflict (1999): Pakistani soldiers and militants infiltrated Indian positions in Kargil, leading to a limited war that ended with Indian victory.

7.3 Cross-Border Terrorism and Proxy Conflicts

• State-Sponsored Militancy: India accuses Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) of supporting insurgents in Kashmir and other regions.
• Major Terrorist Attacks:
• Parliament Attack (2001): Led to massive troop mobilizations.
• Mumbai Attacks (2008): Coordinated attacks by Lashkar-e-Taiba operatives, resulting in over 170 deaths.
• Pakistan's Counter-Accusations: Alleges Indian involvement in fomenting unrest in Balochistan and Sindh provinces.

7.4 Water Disputes: The Indus Waters Treaty

• Treaty Overview (1960): Brokered by the World Bank, allocating control of western rivers to Pakistan and eastern rivers to India.Al Jazeera
• Recent Developments:
• India's Suspension (2025): Following the Pahalgam attack, India suspended the treaty, citing Pakistan's breach of conditions due to ongoing terrorism .
• Pakistan's Reaction: Deemed the suspension an "act of war," raising concerns over water security .

7.5 The 2025 Pahalgam Attack and Subsequent Escalation

• The Attack (April 22, 2025): A terrorist assault in Pahalgam, Jammu and Kashmir, killed 27 civilians, including tourists, leading to national outrage .
• India's Response:
• Operation Sindoor: Targeted strikes on alleged terrorist camps in Pakistan-administered Kashmir .
• Diplomatic Measures: Suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty, expulsion of diplomats, and visa cancellations .
• Pakistan's Counteractions:
• Military Retaliation: Downing of Indian drones and missile attacks on Indian military sites .
• Denial of Involvement: Refuted claims of supporting the attackers and called for impartial investigations.

7.6 Ceasefire and International Mediation

• U.S.-Brokered Ceasefire (May 2025): Facilitated by President Trump, leading to a temporary halt in hostilities
• India's Stance: Prime Minister Modi emphasized that peace talks are contingent upon Pakistan dismantling terrorist infrastructure and ceasing support for militancy
• Pakistan's Position: Welcomed international mediation and called for addressing the Kashmir issue through dialogue.

7.7 Current Status and Future Prospects

• Military Posture: Both nations remain on high alert, with increased troop deployments along the LoC.
• Diplomatic Relations: Strained, with limited communication channels and suspended trade relations.
• Public Sentiment: Nationalistic fervor on both sides hampers reconciliation efforts.
• Potential Avenues for Peace:
• Track II Diplomacy: Engagements through backchannel communications and civil society initiatives.
• Multilateral Forums: Utilizing platforms like the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) for dialogue .

7.8 Summary Timeline

The India-Pakistan conflict remains one of the most enduring and complex rivalries in the world, characterized by deep-seated historical grievances, territorial disputes, and mutual distrust. While recent escalations have heightened tensions, avenues for dialogue and peace, though limited, still exist and require sustained efforts from both nations and the international community.

India and Its Other Neighbours

1. India–Bangladesh Relations
2. Areas of Tension and Disagreement

• River Water Sharing:
• Persistent issues over equitable sharing of the Ganga and Brahmaputra river waters.
• The proposed Teesta Water Agreement remains unsigned due to differences between Indian central and West Bengal state governments.
• Illegal Immigration:
• India has expressed concerns over the illegal immigration of Bangladeshi nationals, which affects demography and internal security in northeastern states.
• Support to Anti-Indian Elements:
• India has accused some Bangladeshi groups of supporting Islamic fundamentalist and anti-India elements.
• Transit and Energy Trade Issues:
• Bangladesh previously denied India land transit to its northeastern states and rejected proposals to export natural gas directly or allow gas pipelines from Myanmar via its territory.

2. Bangladesh’s Concerns

• Accusations that India behaves like a regional hegemon.
• Concerns over:
• India's stance on Chittagong Hill Tracts insurgency.
• Trade imbalance perceived as favouring India.
• Water-sharing disputes and lack of environmental sensitivity.

3. Areas of Cooperation and Progress

• Enclave Exchange (2015): Historic settlement of border enclaves through the Land Boundary Agreement.
• Trade and Connectivity:
• Bangladesh is India’s largest trading partner in South Asia.
• Multiple railway lines and road links have been revived.
• Power and Energy Cooperation:
• India exports electricity to Bangladesh.
• Regional Integration:
• Bangladesh is central to India’s “Act East Policy”, facilitating access to Southeast Asia.

4. Recent Political Developments (2024–2025)

• 2024 Parliamentary Elections in Bangladesh:
• Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina retained power amid opposition boycott and allegations of election irregularities.
• India maintains strong ties with the ruling Awami League.
• Focus on counterterrorism, infrastructure cooperation, and climate resilience.

1. India–Nepal Relations
2. Unique Bilateral Ties

• Open Border Agreement: Citizens can move and work freely without passports or visas.
• Strong cultural, religious, and economic linkages.

2. Major Issues

• Trade and Transit Disputes:
• Nepal depends on India for access to the sea; at times, India has restricted transit routes due to political disagreements.
• Anti-India Sentiments:
• India is often perceived in Nepal as interfering in its internal politics.
• Accusations of exploiting Nepal’s hydropower and water resources.
• Maoist Movement:
• Indian concerns over Maoist influence in Nepal affecting Naxalite movements in India.

3. Recent Political Developments (2022–2025)

• Frequent Leadership Changes and political instability have continued in Nepal.
• Border Map Controversy (2020):
• Nepal released a new political map claiming Indian territories (Lipulekh, Kalapani, Limpiyadhura).
• Relations were strained but have slowly normalised through diplomatic engagement.

4. Ongoing Cooperation

• Hydropower Projects: India invests in large-scale projects (e.g., Arun III).
• Infrastructure Development: Roads, railways, and transmission lines being built with Indian support.
• Security Ties: India remains Nepal’s main defence partner.

1. India–Sri Lanka Relations
2. Ethnic Conflict and Tamil Issue

• India’s 1987 military intervention (IPKF) was unsuccessful.
• Continued concern over the treatment of Sri Lankan Tamils, especially among Indian Tamils in Tamil Nadu.

2. Economic and Strategic Cooperation

• Free Trade Agreement (2000): Boosted trade and investment.
• Post-Tsunami Assistance (2004): Strengthened ties.

3. China Factor and Recent Developments

• Chinese investments in infrastructure (e.g., Hambantota Port) have raised Indian concerns.
• India has responded with increased economic assistance and strategic engagement.

4. Recent Political Changes (2022–2025)

• 2022 Economic Crisis: Led to mass protests, ousting of President Gotabaya Rajapaksa.
• Ranil Wickremesinghe became president with Indian support.
• India extended a $4 billion credit line for food, fuel, and medicines.
• Focus now on economic recovery, debt restructuring, and regional cooperation.

1. India–Bhutan Relations
2. Strong and Stable Ties

• Deep-rooted friendship based on mutual respect and non-interference.
• Citizens enjoy visa-free travel.

2. Hydropower Projects:

• India is the main investor and buyer of Bhutanese hydropower (e.g., Tala, Punatsangchhu).

3. Security Cooperation

• India helped Bhutan eliminate anti-India insurgents from its territory in the early 2000s.

4. Recent Developments

• Bhutan is transitioning to democratic governance under the monarchy.
• Continued cooperation in education, space tech, and digitisation.

1. India–Maldives Relations
2. Strategic Importance

• Close maritime partner in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
• India played a key role in Operation Cactus (1988) to stop a coup attempt.

2. Economic Cooperation

• Indian investment in infrastructure, tourism, and health sectors.
• COVID-19 and post-crisis recovery assistance.

3. Recent Political Tensions and 2023 Elections

• “India Out” Campaign under President Mohamed Muizzu, calling for withdrawal of Indian military personnel.
• Despite political strain, economic and strategic ties remain vital for IOR security.

1. India–Myanmar Relations
2. Shared Interests

• Border management, counter-insurgency, connectivity (Kaladan Project), and trade.

2. Military Coup (2021) and India’s Stance

• India has maintained a non-interventionist approach, balancing between realpolitik and democratic values.
• Humanitarian aid provided, but engagement with the military junta remains limited.

1. Regional Dynamics: South Asian Conflicts Beyond India

• Bhutan–Nepal: Tensions over Bhutanese refugees of Nepalese origin.
• Bangladesh–Myanmar: Ongoing Rohingya refugee crisis has strained relations.
• India’s Role: As the central and largest country, India is involved in most conflicts, either directly or indirectly.

1. Peace and Cooperation in South Asia
2. SAARC and Regional Efforts

• South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) initiated in 1985.
• Struggles due to India–Pakistan rivalry.
• SAFTA (2006): South Asian Free Trade Area aimed to reduce tariffs and boost trade.

2. Challenges to SAARC

• Political tensions, especially between India and Pakistan, stall progress.
• Smaller countries fear Indian economic domination.

3. Bilateral Alternatives

• India pursues bilateral and sub-regional groupings (e.g., BBIN, BIMSTEC) to bypass SAARC deadlocks.

1. Influence of External Powers
2. China

• Strategic partner of Pakistan.
• Expanding presence in Nepal, Sri Lanka, Maldives.
• India counters through “Neighbourhood First” and “Act East” policies.

2. United States

• Strategic ties with both India and Pakistan.
• Focus on counterterrorism, Indo-Pacific, and balancing China.
• Indian diaspora and economic cooperation deepen the US stake in regional peace.

Conclusion

The South Asian region remains a complex web of conflict, cooperation, and competition. While India’s central geographic and political position often makes it a focal point of regional dynamics, sustained efforts at dialogue, mutual respect, and development cooperation can gradually transform South Asia from a conflict-prone zone to a more integrated and peaceful region.

Peace and Cooperation in South Asia

South Asia, despite being one of the most conflict-prone regions globally, also demonstrates significant potential for cooperation and mutual progress. The countries in this region have recognized the need for peaceful co-existence, regional integration, and collaborative development, although political, historical, and strategic challenges often slow progress.

1. Coexistence of Conflict and Cooperation

• While bilateral tensions (especially India–Pakistan, India–Nepal, and India–Sri Lanka) are frequent, South Asian nations understand that cooperation is essential for:
• Economic development
• Regional stability
• Addressing common issues like climate change, terrorism, and poverty
• The formation of regional institutions and agreements reflects this aspiration for collective progress.

1. SAARC: A Regional Framework for Cooperation
2. Formation and Goals

• SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) was established in 1985.
• Member Countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
• Objectives:
• Promote economic growth, social progress, and cultural development.
• Strengthen collective self-reliance among South Asian nations.
• Foster mutual understanding and cooperation in multiple fields.

2. Achievements

• Platforms for dialogue and diplomacy on shared regional concerns.
• Establishment of SAARC summits, SAARC Development Fund (SDF), and regional centres for cooperation in areas like agriculture, health, and education.

3. Limitations and Challenges

• Political tensions, especially India–Pakistan rivalry, have frequently stalled progress.
• Summits have been postponed or cancelled due to bilateral disagreements.
• Lack of strong institutional enforcement mechanisms.
• Smaller countries fear Indian dominance in decision-making and resource allocation.

1. SAFTA: South Asian Free Trade Area
2. What is SAFTA?

• Agreement signed in 2004, operational since 1 January 2006.
• Objective: Create a free trade zone in South Asia by reducing tariffs and trade barriers among member countries.

2. Benefits and Opportunities

• Boosts intra-regional trade, currently one of the lowest globally.
• Encourages economic interdependence, which can reduce political conflicts.
• Promotes regional value chains and greater access to markets, especially for smaller economies.

3. Concerns and Criticisms

• Smaller neighbours’ fear: India may use SAFTA to dominate regional markets through its large economy and products.
• India’s response: Emphasizes mutual gains and regional prosperity, arguing that economic ties can pave the way for political cooperation.
• Domestic critics in India: Argue SAFTA is redundant as India already has strong bilateral trade agreements with Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.

1. India–Pakistan: Managing Tensions and Building Trust

Despite their troubled history, India and Pakistan have undertaken several confidence-building measures (CBMs) and efforts at diplomatic engagement.

1. Efforts to Build Peace

• Regular high-level summits and bilateral talks.
• Track II diplomacy: Involvement of academics, artists, and civil society in dialogue and peace initiatives.
• People-to-people initiatives:
• Launch of cross-border bus and train services (e.g., Delhi–Lahore, Srinagar–Muzaffarabad, and Amritsar–Lahore).
• Relaxation of visa norms, especially for religious pilgrims and senior citizens.
• Trade across the Line of Control (LoC): Boosted commerce between divided regions of Kashmir (e.g., trade between Indian and Pakistani Punjab).

2. Ongoing Challenges

• Military standoffs (e.g., Kargil War 1999, surgical strikes 2016, Balakot air strikes 2019).
• Terrorism and cross-border infiltration continue to threaten trust-building.
• Kashmir dispute remains a core unresolved issue.

1. Influence of External Powers in South Asia
2. China’s Role

• Maintains strong strategic partnership with Pakistan (e.g., CPEC under Belt and Road Initiative).
• Expanding economic and military presence in Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Maldives.
• While India–China relations have improved economically, tensions persist due to border disputes and regional competition.

2. United States’ Role

• Increasing involvement post-Cold War:
• Acts as a moderator in India–Pakistan tensions.
• Engaged in counterterrorism, economic reforms, and regional security.
• Maintains good relations with both India and Pakistan.
• Large South Asian diaspora in the US and the region’s economic potential enhance American interest.
• Promotes strategic cooperation with India in the Indo-Pacific to counterbalance China.

1. Challenges to Regional Peace and Integration

• Historical animosities and nationalist politics often derail diplomatic efforts.
• Cross-border terrorism, ethnic conflicts, and refugee crises (e.g., Rohingya) remain persistent challenges.
• Lack of trust and transparency among states.
• Inability of SAARC to function effectively in the presence of bilateral hostilities.

1. The Road Ahead: Can South Asia Evolve into a Peaceful Regional Bloc?

Whether South Asia remains a zone of conflict and mistrust, or transforms into a region of peaceful cooperation, will depend on:

1. Political Will

• Governments must prioritize dialogue over confrontation, and long-term regional interests over short-term nationalist gains.

2. People-to-People Contacts

• Cultural exchange, tourism, education, and diaspora engagement can foster better understanding and empathy.

3. Economic Integration

• Enhancing regional trade and connectivity can increase economic interdependence, reducing incentives for conflict.

4. Strong Regional Institutions

• SAARC and other platforms like BIMSTEC, BBIN, and IORA should be empowered to address common issues beyond politics.

Conclusion

Peace and cooperation in South Asia are not just diplomatic goals, but necessities for the well-being of nearly 2 billion people. While challenges persist, the region has significant shared history, cultural links, and economic potential. A united South Asia, driven by the aspirations of its people and visionary leadership, can emerge as a powerful and peaceful force in the global community.

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