NCERT Made Easy CONTEMPORARY CENTRES OF POWER CBSE Political Science Class 12 Contemporary World Politics Chapter 02

NCERT Made Easy CONTEMPORARY CENTRES OF POWER CBSE Political Science Class 12 Contemporary World Politics Chapter 02

Overview: Rise of Alternative Centres of Power

• After the end of the Cold War and the bipolar world order, new political and economic powers began to emerge.
• These alternative centres, such as the European Union (EU) and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), started challenging American dominance.
• Both the EU and ASEAN focused on regional cooperation and economic integration, promoting peace and prosperity.
• China's economic rise further contributed to shifting global power dynamics.
• This chapter examines the roles and influence of these emerging powers in world politics.

European Union (EU)

Background and Evolution

• Post-WWII, Europe needed reconstruction and reconsideration of inter-state relations.
• The US helped revive European economies through the Marshall Plan.
• The OEEC (1948) and the Council of Europe (1949) promoted economic and political cooperation.
• The European Economic Community (EEC) was formed in 1957, leading to further integration.
• The collapse of the Soviet Union sped up the process, resulting in the formation of the European Union in 1992.

Institutional and Political Development

• The EU gradually evolved from an economic union to a political entity.
• It introduced its own flag, anthem, currency (euro), and attempted a constitution.
• The EU developed a Common Foreign and Security Policy and promotes cooperation on justice and home affairs.

Expansion and Integration Challenges

• The EU expanded by including former Soviet bloc countries.
• However, there was hesitation in ceding national powers to the EU, and integration faced resistance.
• Skepticism exists in several member states, limiting EU’s effectiveness in foreign and defence matters.

Economic Power

• The EU is the second-largest global economy (over $17 trillion GDP in 2016).
• The euro competes with the US dollar in global markets.
• The EU’s share in world trade is larger than the US, enabling leverage in global economic affairs.

Political and Diplomatic Influence

• France holds a permanent UN Security Council seat; other EU nations have held non-permanent seats.
• The EU uses diplomacy, investment, and negotiations over coercion (e.g., dialogue with China on human rights).

Military Capacity

• The EU has the world’s second-largest armed forces and defence budget (after the US).
• France, an EU member, holds about 335 nuclear warheads.
• The EU is a major player in space and communication technologies.

Internal Divergences

• Not all EU members align on foreign and defence policy (e.g., UK supported the Iraq War; Germany and France opposed it).
• Euroscepticism has been prominent in countries like the UK (which voted for Brexit), Denmark, and Sweden.

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

Historical Context and Formation

• Post-WWII Southeast Asia suffered due to colonialism, poverty, and Cold War pressures.
• Regional cooperation efforts like the Bandung Conference and NAM were limited in success.
• ASEAN was founded in 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand (Bangkok Declaration).
• Objectives included promoting economic growth, social progress, and regional peace.

Growth and the ‘ASEAN Way’

• Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia joined later, making 10 members.
• ASEAN emphasizes informal, cooperative, and non-confrontational interaction.
• It strongly respects national sovereignty and avoids supranational structures (unlike the EU).

Economic and Security Cooperation

• In 2003, ASEAN adopted the ASEAN Community vision with three pillars:
• ASEAN Security Community
• ASEAN Economic Community
• ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community
• The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) coordinates security and foreign policies.
• ASEAN nations agreed to non-interference and peaceful conflict resolution.

Economic Strength and Influence

• Though smaller than the US, EU, and Japan, ASEAN's economy is growing faster.
• Focuses on creating a Free Trade Area (FTA) for goods, services, investment, and skilled labour.
• ASEAN aims to improve its Dispute Settlement Mechanism.
• The US and China are negotiating FTAs with ASEAN due to its growing importance.

Regional and Global Role

• ASEAN has helped mediate in regional conflicts like Cambodia and East Timor.
• It provides a platform for dialogue on political and security issues in Asia.
• India signed FTAs with Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand and is engaging more through its Look East and Act East policies.

Timeline of European Integration

• 1951 (April): France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg sign the Treaty of Paris, forming the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).
• 1957 (March 25): The same six nations sign the Treaties of Rome, establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and Euratom.
• 1973 (January): Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom join the EEC.
• 1979 (June): First direct elections to the European Parliament are held.
• 1981 (January): Greece joins the EEC.
• 1985 (June): Schengen Agreement signed to abolish border controls among member states.
• 1986 (January): Spain and Portugal join the EEC.
• 1990 (October): Germany is reunified, increasing the EC’s political weight.
• 1992 (February 7): Maastricht Treaty signed, establishing the European Union (EU).
• 1993 (January): Single Market becomes operational.
• 1995 (January): Austria, Finland, and Sweden join the EU.
• 2002 (January): Euro introduced as common currency in 12 EU countries.
• 2004 (May): Ten new members join: Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia.
• 2007 (January): Bulgaria and Romania join. Slovenia adopts the Euro.
• 2009 (December): The Lisbon Treaty comes into force, reforming EU structures.
• 2012: EU awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for promoting peace, democracy, and human rights.
• 2013: Croatia becomes the 28th EU member.
• 2016: UK votes to leave the EU in the Brexit referendum (51.9% in favor).

Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN)

1. Background of Southeast Asia

• Southeast Asia includes countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, and Brunei.
• During colonial rule and World War II, the region suffered due to foreign domination and war-related destruction.
• Post-WWII, Southeast Asian countries faced challenges like:
• Nation-building.
• Poverty and economic backwardness.
• Pressure to align with Cold War superpowers.
• Regional unity efforts like the Bandung Conference and the Non-Aligned Movement failed to create sustained cooperation in the region.

2. Formation of ASEAN

• Founded: 1967 through the Bangkok Declaration.
• Founding Members: Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand.
• Later Members: Brunei, Vietnam, Laos (Lao PDR), Myanmar (Burma), and Cambodia.
• Current Total Members: 10.

3. Objectives of ASEAN

• Primary Objective: Accelerate economic growth leading to social progress and cultural development.
• Secondary Objective: Promote regional peace and stability by upholding:
• The rule of law.
• Principles of the United Nations Charter.

4. The ASEAN Way

• ASEAN emphasizes:
• Informal interaction.
• Non-confrontation and cooperation.
• Strong respect for national sovereignty.
• ASEAN avoids supranational institutions (unlike the EU).

5. ASEAN Community (Established in 2003)

Comprises three key pillars:

1. ASEAN Security Community
2. ASEAN Economic Community
3. ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community

6. ASEAN Security Community

• Aims to prevent armed conflicts and territorial disputes.
• Encourages peace, neutrality, cooperation, non-interference, and respect for sovereignty.
• ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF): Formed in 1994 to coordinate security and foreign policy.

7. ASEAN Economic Community

• Seeks to create:
• A common market and production base.
• A Free Trade Area (FTA) for goods, investment, labour, and services.
• Aims to improve the Dispute Settlement Mechanism for economic conflicts.
• ASEAN’s economy, though smaller than that of the US, EU, or Japan, is growing faster.
• Trade partnerships: The US and China have signed FTAs with ASEAN.

8. ASEAN’s Global Role

• ASEAN is emerging as a major regional power.
• Vision 2020:
• Advocates an outward-looking approach.
• Promotes conflict resolution through negotiation.
• Successful mediation examples:
• End of the Cambodian conflict.
• East Timor crisis.
• Holds annual summits on East Asian cooperation.

9. India and ASEAN

• India shares cultural and geographical proximity, especially through its north-eastern states.
• Cold War Era: Limited interaction due to India’s non-aligned stance.
• Post-1990s: India adopted the Look East Policy (1990s) and later the Act East Policy (2014).
• Key developments:
• Trade agreements with Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand.
• ASEAN-India FTA came into effect in 2010.
• Celebrated 25 years of partnership in 2018 with joint events.

10. Reasons for ASEAN’s Success

• ASEAN succeeded where SAARC struggled due to:
• No dominant country in the region.
• Emphasis on consensus, consultation, and mutual respect.
• Flexible and pragmatic ASEAN Way of cooperation.

The Rise of the Chinese Economy

1. China's Emergence as an Economic Power

• China has emerged as a major global economic power since 1978.
• It has been the fastest growing economy since the economic reforms began.
• Predicted to overtake the US as the world’s largest economy by 2040.
• Its integration with East Asia has made China the driver of regional growth.
• Economic strength combined with population, landmass, resources, and political influence enhances its global stature.

2. Early Economic Model (1949–1978)

• After 1949, under Mao Zedong, China adopted a Soviet-style socialist model:
• State-owned heavy industries were created using capital from agriculture.
• Cut off economic ties with the capitalist world.
• Relied briefly on Soviet aid.
• Focused on import substitution due to a lack of foreign exchange.
• Achievements:
• Built the base of an industrial economy.
• Provided employment, education, and healthcare.
• Achieved 5–6% annual growth, but population growth diluted its impact.
• Limitations:
• Low agricultural surplus.
• Minimal international trade.
• Stagnant industrial growth and low per capita income.

3. Reforms and Opening Up (1970s–1980s)

• 1972: Diplomatic ties with the United States were established.
• 1973: Premier Zhou Enlai proposed the Four Modernisations:
1. Agriculture
2. Industry
3. Science and Technology
4. Military
• 1978: Deng Xiaoping launched the Open Door Policy and economic reforms.

• Aim: Increase productivity via foreign capital and technology.

4. Reform Strategy and Implementation

• China adopted a gradual reform strategy, not a sudden shock therapy like in Russia.
• Key steps:
• 1982: Agriculture was privatised.
• 1998: Industry was privatised.
• Special Economic Zones (SEZs) created for foreign investment and trade.
• The state retained a guiding role in the economy while introducing market elements.

5. Economic Growth and Impact

• Privatisation of agriculture led to:
• Increased agricultural output and rural income.
• Boosted rural industrialisation due to high savings.
• Foreign Trade & Investment:
• SEZs attracted large volumes of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI).
• China became a global FDI hub with large foreign exchange reserves.
• 2001: Joined the World Trade Organization (WTO).
• Aims to deepen global economic integration and shape the world economic order.

6. Social and Economic Challenges

• Rapid growth brought new problems:
• Rising unemployment (nearly 100 million job-seekers).
• Poor working conditions, especially for women.
• Environmental degradation and corruption.
• Growing economic inequality:
• Between urban and rural areas.
• Between coastal and inland provinces.

7. China’s Regional and Global Influence

• China has used economic power to influence regional and global politics.
• Trade interdependence has eased tensions with:
• Japan, the US, Russia, and ASEAN.
• Aims to resolve issues with Taiwan through economic integration.
• After the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, China’s role in ASEAN stability increased.
• Expanding investment and aid to Africa and Latin America has positioned China as a champion of developing countries.

India - China Relations

1. Historical Background

• India and China were influential Asian powers before Western imperialism.
• China exerted control over regions like Mongolia, Korea, Indo-China, and Tibet through its tributary system.
• Indian empires also extended political, economic, and cultural influence beyond their borders.
• Their zones of influence rarely overlapped, leading to limited historical interaction and mutual unfamiliarity.
• In the 20th century, this unfamiliarity made it difficult to evolve effective foreign policies toward each other.

2. Early Post-Independence Phase

• After India’s independence (1947) and China’s revolution (1949), there was optimism about mutual cooperation.
• The slogan “Hindi-Chini Bhai-Bhai” symbolized early goodwill.
• However, tensions arose over:
• China’s takeover of Tibet (1950)
• Unresolved border issues, particularly in Arunachal Pradesh and Aksai Chin
• These led to the India–China war of 1962, in which India faced military setbacks.

3. Post-War Diplomatic Freeze and Recovery

• Diplomatic ties were downgraded post-1962, with little engagement until 1976.
• After leadership changes in China (late 1970s), its foreign policy became pragmatic and less ideological.
• China chose to delay contentious issues like the boundary dispute while improving overall relations.
• Border talks were initiated in 1981, laying groundwork for gradual normalization.

4. Post–Cold War Strategic Shift

• Since the end of the Cold War, India and China have pursued both strategic and economic cooperation.
• Both see themselves as rising powers in Asia and globally.
• Rajiv Gandhi’s 1988 visit marked a turning point, leading to:
• Efforts to maintain peace and tranquility on the border
• Agreements on cultural exchange, science and technology, and trade
• Opening of four border trade posts

5. Economic Engagement

• India–China trade has grown rapidly since the late 1990s, with an annual growth rate of 30% since 1999.
• Bilateral trade reached $84 billion in 2017.
• Both nations have cooperated in energy deals abroad and adopted similar positions in global economic forums like the WTO.

6. Strategic Concerns and Ongoing Cooperation

• India’s 1998 nuclear tests were partly justified by perceived threats from China.
• India remains concerned about:
• China’s support for Pakistan’s nuclear programme
• Military ties with Bangladesh and Myanmar
• Despite concerns, the relationship has remained stable:
• Boundary talks continue uninterrupted
• Military-to-military cooperation is improving
• High-level visits and dialogue are frequent

7. Current Challenges

• Recent years have seen strained relations due to:
• Ongoing border disputes
• The China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC)
• China’s stance in the UN, supporting Pakistan and opposing India’s counter-terrorism efforts
• Nevertheless, shared interests in trade, infrastructure, and global issues can still foster cooperation between the two most populous nations.

Japan

Japan: Economic and Strategic Overview

1. Economic Profile

• Global Standing: As of 2025, Japan ranks as the 5th largest economy globally by both nominal GDP and purchasing power parity (PPP), with a nominal GDP of approximately $4.19 trillion and a PPP-adjusted GDP of $6.74 trillion.
• Industrial Strength: Japan is a leader in high-technology industries, notably in automobiles, electronics, and machine tools.
• Trade Dynamics: Despite limited natural resources, Japan maintains a robust trade network, importing raw materials and exporting high-value goods.

2. International Engagements

• UN Contributions: Japan remains a significant contributor to the United Nations, reflecting its commitment to global peace and development.
• Regional Cooperation: Japan actively participates in regional security dialogues, including the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) with the U.S., India, and Australia.

India-Japan Bilateral Relations

1. Strategic Partnerships

• Vision 2025: Both nations are working towards the "India-Japan Vision 2025" to strengthen their Special Strategic and Global Partnership, focusing on economic growth, infrastructure development, and regional stability.
• Defense Collaboration: India and Japan have conducted joint military exercises and signed agreements for the co-development of defense equipment, such as the Unified Complex Radio Antenna (UNICORN) mast.

2. Economic and Technological Cooperation

• Investment Initiatives: Japan has pledged significant investments in India, including a ¥5 trillion ($42 billion) commitment over five years to support various sectors.
• Semiconductor Collaboration: Both countries signed a memorandum in 2023 to develop the semiconductor industry, aiming to strengthen supply chains and technological capabilities.

3. Cultural and Educational Exchanges

• Year of Science and Technology: 2025 has been designated as the "India-Japan Year of Science, Technology, and Innovation," marking 40 years since their initial cooperation agreement in this field.
• People-to-People Ties: Efforts are ongoing to enhance collaboration in education, skill development, and cultural exchanges, with a growing Indian diaspora in Japan contributing to stronger bilateral relations.

South Korea

Human Development in South Korea

1. HDI Ranking (2016):

• According to the Human Development Report 2016, South Korea ranks 18th on the Human Development Index (HDI).

2. Key Factors Contributing to High Human Development:
   The following major factors have contributed to South Korea's impressive human development:

• Successful Land Reforms:
  Redistribution of land helped reduce inequality and improve agricultural productivity.
• Rural Development:
  Investment in rural infrastructure and services improved the quality of life in the countryside.
• Extensive Human Resources Development:
  Heavy focus on education and skill development enhanced the capabilities of the workforce.
• Rapid and Equitable Economic Growth:
  Economic progress has been accompanied by efforts to ensure fair distribution of income and opportunities.

3. Other Supporting Factors:
   Additional contributors to South Korea’s development include:

• Export Orientation:
  Emphasis on exports helped integrate the economy with global markets, fueling growth.
• Strong Redistribution Policies:
  Social welfare programs and tax policies helped reduce income inequality.
• Public Infrastructure Development:
  Investment in roads, transportation, and communication supported industrialization and connectivity.
• Effective Institutions and Governance:
  Transparent, efficient, and stable governance systems facilitated sustained development.

India–South Korea Relations

1. Prominent South Korean Brands in India:

• Brands such as Samsung, LG, and Hyundai are widely recognized and popular among Indian consumers, indicating strong economic and brand presence.

2. Bilateral Agreements:

• Several agreements have been signed between India and South Korea in recent years, reflecting deepening commercial and cultural relations.
• These agreements cover various sectors such as trade, defense, technology, culture, and education.

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