NCERT Made Easy Notes on Class 12 History Chapter 07 An Imperial Capital Vijayanagara (c. Fourteenth to Sixteenth Century)

Introduction

1. Meaning and Significance of Vijayanagara
• Vijayanagara literally means the “City of Victory.”
• The name referred both to:
• The city itself (its capital).
• The empire that grew from it.
• It symbolised political power, cultural achievements, and religious significance in South India during the medieval period.
2. Foundation of the Empire
• Established in the fourteenth century (1336 CE) by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty.
• Its formation was a response to political instability caused by repeated invasions from the Delhi Sultanate and other forces.
• Over time, it grew into a mighty empire and became a stronghold of South Indian traditions and administration.
3. Extent of the Empire
• At its peak, the empire stretched from:
• River Krishna in the north.
• To the extreme south of the Indian peninsula.
• This made Vijayanagara one of the largest and most powerful empires in peninsular India during the medieval period.
4. Decline of Vijayanagara
• In 1565 CE, the city faced a decisive defeat at the Battle of Talikota, fought against the combined armies of the Deccan Sultanates.
• The victorious forces sacked and plundered the city, leading to widespread destruction.
• After this, Vijayanagara was gradually deserted and never regained its former glory.
5. Later Condition
• By the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the once magnificent city had fallen into complete ruin.
• Despite its decline, the memory of Vijayanagara remained alive in the minds of the local people.
6. The Name Hampi and its Local Legacy
• The ruins of Vijayanagara continued to be remembered as Hampi.
• The name Hampi is derived from Pampadevi, the local mother goddess worshipped in the region.
• This shows the blending of religious traditions and how local culture preserved the memory of the empire.
7. Rediscovery of Vijayanagara
• Though the empire fell, its legacy was not lost.
• Knowledge about Vijayanagara comes from a variety of sources:
• Oral traditions kept alive by local communities.
• Archaeological findings in the Krishna-Tungabhadra doab.
• Monuments and architectural remains, such as temples and fortifications.
• Inscriptions and records left behind.
• These combined sources have allowed modern scholars to reconstruct the history of this remarkable empire.

1. The Discovery of Hampi

1.1 Rediscovery of the Ruins

1. The ruins of Hampi (Vijayanagara) were first systematically documented in the early 19th century.
2. In 1800, an engineer and antiquarian named Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an employee of the English East India Company, brought the site into scholarly notice.
3. Mackenzie is credited with preparing the first survey map of Hampi, marking the beginning of modern historical interest in the Vijayanagara empire.

1.2 Early Sources of Information

1. Local Priests as Informants
• Much of Mackenzie’s early information came from the memories and traditions preserved by local priests.
• Priests from the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi shared oral histories and stories about the city.
• This shows the importance of oral traditions in preserving knowledge of the past.
2. Photographic Evidence
• From 1856 onwards, photographers began recording the monuments and ruins of Hampi.
• These photographs became vital tools for scholars to study architecture, inscriptions, and artistic styles with accuracy.
3. Epigraphic Records
• As early as 1836, epigraphists (scholars who study inscriptions) began collecting several dozen inscriptions from temples at Hampi and surrounding areas.
• These inscriptions gave important details about:
• Kings and dynasties.
• Religious practices and donations.
• Construction of temples and public works.
4. Literary and Traveller Accounts
• To reconstruct Vijayanagara’s history, historians later combined these findings with:
• Accounts of foreign travellers (like Domingo Paes and Abdur Razzaq).
• Literary works in regional languages such as Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, and Sanskrit.
• This multidisciplinary approach enabled a more complete picture of the empire.

1.3 Contribution of Colin Mackenzie (Source 1)

1. Life and Career
• Colin Mackenzie (1754–1821) became renowned as an engineer, surveyor, and cartographer.
• In 1815, he was appointed the first Surveyor General of India, a position he held until his death in 1821.
• He devoted his career to collecting local histories, surveying historic sites, and documenting Indian culture and traditions.
2. Purpose of His Work
• Mackenzie aimed to understand India’s past in order to assist the British in governing the colony more effectively.
• He believed Vijayanagara could provide the East India Company with “useful information on institutions, laws and customs” that still influenced local communities.
• His writings reveal a colonial bias: he argued that South India had suffered from “bad management” before coming under the so-called “benign influence” of British rule.
3. Historical Value of His Efforts
• Despite colonial undertones, Mackenzie’s surveys and records laid the foundation for future research.
• He played a pioneering role in bringing Hampi into the academic and public domain.

1.4 The Portrait of Mackenzie (Fig. 7.2)

1. The painting (copy by an unknown artist of Thomas Hickey’s original) shows Mackenzie surrounded by his indigenous informants and assistants.
2. Figures in the painting include:
• On Mackenzie’s left: his peon Kistnaji, holding a telescope.
• On his right: Brahmana assistants, including a Jaina pandit.
• Behind him: the Telugu Brahmana Cauvellery Ventak Letchmiah.
3. Interpretation of the Portrait:
• The artist portrays Mackenzie as the central figure of authority, emphasizing his leadership and importance.
• His Indian assistants are shown as learned informants, but positioned around him to highlight their supporting role.
• The painting conveys a colonial message: Mackenzie is presented as a scholar who, with the help of Indian knowledge keepers, was “rescuing” India’s past for the benefit of modern governance.

✅ Key Takeaway:
The rediscovery of Hampi was not a single event but a gradual process—beginning with Mackenzie’s surveys, enriched by oral traditions, inscriptions, photographs, and literary sources. Together, these materials have allowed historians to reconstruct the grandeur of Vijayanagara, though always filtered through both local memory and colonial perspectives.

2. Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans

Founding and Character of the Empire

1. Foundation (1336 CE):
• Vijayanagara was founded by two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, according to both tradition and inscriptions.
• They laid the foundation of a new political order in South India.
2. Diversity within the empire:
• Its frontiers fluctuated with expansion and contraction.
• The empire brought together people of different languages (Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, Sanskrit, etc.) and varied religious traditions under one political roof.
3. Rivalries and Competition:
• On its northern frontier, Vijayanagara rulers competed with:
• Deccan Sultans (Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda, etc.)
• Gajapati rulers of Orissa
• The struggle was mainly for fertile river valleys (like Raichur doab) and control over lucrative overseas trade routes.
4. Cultural Interaction:
• Competition also led to exchange of ideas.
• Vijayanagara rulers borrowed architectural concepts and building techniques from neighbours and further developed them.
5. Contemporary name:
• While historians use the term Vijayanagara Empire, contemporaries called it Karnataka Samrajyamu (Empire of Karnataka).

Legacy of Earlier States

1. Inherited traditions:
• The areas absorbed into Vijayanagara had earlier seen powerful dynasties:
• Cholas (Tamil Nadu)
• Hoysalas (Karnataka)
• These rulers patronised elaborate temples such as:
• Brihadishvara temple (Thanjavur, Chola dynasty)
• Chennakeshava temple (Belur, Hoysala dynasty)
2. Continuation and innovation:
• Vijayanagara rulers, who styled themselves as rayas, continued this legacy.
• They extended temple architecture to new scales and heights, building monumental gopurams (towering gateways).

Elephants, Horses and Men

1. Gajapati:
• Literally “Lord of Elephants.”
• Refers to the Gajapati rulers of Orissa, powerful in the 15th century.
2. Ashvapati:
• Literally “Lord of Horses.”
• Refers to the Deccan Sultans, who were closely linked with the horse trade.
3. Narapati:
• Literally “Lord of Men.”
• Refers to the rayas of Vijayanagara, emphasising their control over human resources.

2.1 Kings and Traders

1. Importance of Horses:
• Warfare relied heavily on cavalry.
• Horses had to be imported (as they did not breed well in India).
• Main sources: Arabia and Central Asia.
2. Trade networks:
• Initially controlled by Arab traders.
• Local merchant communities like kudirai chettis (horse merchants) also participated.
3. Arrival of the Portuguese (1498):
• Entered the west coast of India (Goa, Calicut, etc.).
• Established trading and military stations.
• Introduced superior military technology (muskets, naval artillery), which made them key players in South Indian politics.
4. Other trade goods:
• Besides horses, Vijayanagara markets traded spices, textiles, pearls, precious stones, sandalwood, jewellery.
• Trade symbolised the wealth and prestige of the city.
5. Krishnadeva Raya’s view on trade:
• In his Telugu work Amuktamalyada, he stressed:
• Improving harbours to encourage commerce.
• Welcoming and caring for foreign sailors and merchants.
• Building strong ties with traders of horses, elephants, and luxury goods.
• Goal: Ensure wealth flowed into Vijayanagara and not its enemies.

2.2 The Apogee and Decline of the Empire

1. Dynasties of Vijayanagara:
• Sangama dynasty (till 1485).
• Saluvas (1485–1503, military commanders who seized power).
• Tuluvas (from 1503; included the most famous ruler, Krishnadeva Raya).
2. Achievements of Krishnadeva Raya (ruled 1509–1529):
• Expanded empire by:
• Conquering Raichur doab (1512).
• Subduing rulers of Orissa (1514).
• Defeating Sultan of Bijapur (1520).
• Promoted peace, prosperity, and architectural splendour.
• Constructed temples and added towering gopurams.
• Founded a suburban township called Nagalapuram, named after his mother.
• Period saw flourishing trade and cultural activity.
3. Decline after Krishnadeva Raya:
• After his death (1529), rebellious nayakas weakened central authority.
• By 1542, power shifted to the Aravidu dynasty (last ruling line).
4. The battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi/Talikota (1565):
• Rama Raya, the chief minister, attempted to manipulate Deccan Sultanates against each other.
• Sultanates of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, and Golconda united and decisively defeated Vijayanagara.
• The city was sacked and abandoned within a few years.
• Aravidus shifted capital east to Penukonda, later Chandragiri (near Tirupati).
5. Complex relations with Sultanates:
• Relations were not always hostile despite religious differences.
• Examples:
• Krishnadeva Raya supported claimants in Sultanates.
• Sultan of Bijapur mediated succession disputes in Vijayanagara.
• Cooperation existed, but Rama Raya’s reckless diplomacy led to the catastrophic defeat.

2.3 The Rayas and the Nayakas

1. Nayakas (Military Chiefs):
• Controlled forts and commanded armed groups.
• Often moved with peasants to settle new fertile lands.
• Spoke Telugu or Kannada.
2. Relationship with kings:
• Nayakas often acknowledged raya’s authority but could rebel.
• Rebellions had to be suppressed militarily.
3. The Amara-Nayaka System:
• A political and military innovation, possibly influenced by the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Features:
• Rayas assigned territories to amara-nayakas (military commanders).
• Nayakas collected taxes, dues, and tribute from peasants, traders, artisans.
• Revenue was used for:
• Personal needs of the nayaka.
• Maintaining contingents of horses and elephants for the king.
• Supporting temples and irrigation works.
4. Control by Rayas:
• Nayakas paid annual tribute to the king.
• Personally appeared in court with gifts to show loyalty.
• Kings sometimes transferred them to assert control.
5. Decline of Central Authority:
• By the 17th century, many nayakas set up independent kingdoms (e.g., Madurai, Thanjavur, Ikkeri, Mysore).
• This hastened the collapse of Vijayanagara’s imperial structure.

3. Vijayanagara The Capital and its Environs

Like most great capitals of the medieval world, Vijayanagara stood out not only as a political and military centre but also for its distinctive physical layout, innovative water systems, and architectural features. The way its space was planned reflects the vision of its rulers who combined security, sacredness, commerce, and culture.

Finding out about the city

1. Sources of information:
• Inscriptions: Numerous stone inscriptions from kings and nayakas recording donations to temples, grants, and important events.
• Travellers’ accounts: Many foreign visitors left detailed observations:
• 15th century: Nicolo de Conti (Italian trader), Abdur Razzaq (Persian ambassador), Afanasii Nikitin (Russian merchant).
• 16th century: Duarte Barbosa, Domingo Paes, and Fernao Nuniz (all Portuguese).
• These accounts give us valuable descriptions of the city’s size, layout, prosperity, and life of its people.
2. A traveller’s view (Domingo Paes):
• Described Vijayanagara as vast and beautiful, comparing it to Rome.
• Mentioned gardens, groves of fruit-bearing trees, water conduits, and lakes.
• Special emphasis was placed on water resources and greenery, which impressed outsiders.

3.1 Water Resources

1. Geographical advantage:
• Located in the natural basin of the Tungabhadra river.
• Surrounded by granite hills that protected the city like a girdle.
• Numerous small streams from rocky outcrops fed into the main river.
2. Irrigation and storage:
• As the region is arid, rulers invested heavily in waterworks.
• Embankments were built along streams to create reservoirs of various sizes.
• Kamalapuram tank (15th century):
• Supplied water to fields and the royal centre.
• Example of how water storage supported both agriculture and urban life.
3. Canal system:
• Hiriya Canal, built by the Sangama kings, carried water from the Tungabhadra dam.
• Irrigated fields between the sacred centre and the urban core, ensuring both food supply and ritual needs.
4. Massive engineering:
• Example: A tank built by Krishnadeva Raya, with water brought from nearly 15 km away through pipes.
• Required thousands of labourers, showing the scale of royal investment in water management.

3.2 Fortifications and Roads

1. Multiple layers of defence:
• Abdur Razzaq mentioned seven lines of fortification.
• These not only protected the city but also enclosed agricultural lands, forests, and settlements.
2. Construction features:
• No mortar used; wedge-shaped stones interlocked for stability.
• Earth and rubble packed inside walls.
• Bastions projected outward for defence.
3. Unique strategy:
• Unlike other kingdoms that built granaries, Vijayanagara rulers protected agricultural tracts within fortifications.
• Ensured food supply during long sieges, reflecting military foresight and economic planning.
4. Roads and gateways:
• Roads wound through valleys, avoiding rocky terrain.
• Major roads began at temple gateways, often lined with bazaars.
• Gateways were not just defensive but also architectural landmarks:
• Show Indo-Islamic features (arches, domes) blended with local styles.

3.3 The Urban Core

1. Residential zones:
• Archaeological remains of ordinary houses are scarce.
• Portuguese traveller Barbosa described them as thatched but well arranged, with occupational clustering.
• Rich traders (including Muslims) lived in the north-eastern quarter, where Chinese porcelain has been found.
2. Religious diversity:
• City dotted with shrines, temples, and mosques.
• Mosques resembled temple mandapas in architecture, showing cultural exchange.
• Numerous cults and deities coexisted, supported by different communities.
3. Water for daily life:
• Ordinary people relied on wells, temple tanks, and rainwater tanks.
• Reinforces the importance of water management at all levels of society.

Key Takeaways for Retention

• Vijayanagara’s genius lay in combining military security (forts, bastions), economic planning (protected agriculture, trade routes), sacred landscape (temples, shrines), and urban planning (roads, waterworks, bazaars).
• Its urban design was not random but carefully thought out to integrate defence, survival, prosperity, and culture.
• Traveller accounts help us visualize the grandeur and complexity of the city, while inscriptions and archaeology give factual confirmations.

4. The Royal Centre

• The Royal Centre was located in the south-western part of Vijayanagara.
• Despite being termed a "royal centre," it was not exclusively political or administrative – it housed over 60 temples, highlighting the rulers’ dependence on religious patronage to legitimize power and authority.
• The association with temples and cults allowed rulers to demonstrate their piety and connect their kingship to divine sanction.

Palatial Structures

• Archaeologists have identified about 30 complexes that may have functioned as palaces.
• These were large and impressive, but unlike temples, they lacked ritual associations.
• Key difference:
• Temples → constructed entirely of durable masonry (stone).
• Palaces/secular buildings → superstructures often made of perishable materials like wood and brick, which explains why many have not survived fully.

4.1 The Mahanavami Dibba

General Features

• The "King’s Palace" is the largest enclosure in the Royal Centre.
• Within it, two most notable platforms:
• Audience Hall – a high platform with slots for wooden pillars; closely spaced columns left little room, leaving its function uncertain.
• Mahanavami Dibba – a massive, elevated platform located on a high point in the city.

Mahanavami Dibba

• Base covers about 11,000 sq. ft and rises to considerable height.
• Originally supported a wooden superstructure, now lost.
• Its base is covered with elaborate relief carvings, depicting courtly scenes, processions, and festive rituals.

Functions and Associations

• Associated with the grand Mahanavami festival (also called Navaratri, Dussehra, or Durga Puja depending on region).
• The festival symbolized the king’s prestige, sovereignty, and power.
• Rituals included:
1. Worship of divine images.
2. Worship of the royal horse.
3. Sacrifices of buffaloes and other animals.
4. Public events – dances, wrestling, military parades, decorated elephants, horses, and chariots.
5. Chiefs (nayakas) and subordinate kings offering tribute and gifts to the Vijayanagara king.
• On the last day, the king performed a grand inspection of armies, symbolizing military might and centralized power.

Historical Puzzle

• Scholars debate whether the current Mahanavami Dibba ruins were actually the central venue, as the surrounding space seems too small for the elaborate rituals and processions described.
• This remains an enigma of Vijayanagara archaeology.

4.2 Other Buildings in the Royal Centre

The Lotus Mahal

• One of the most elegant structures, romantically named by British visitors in the 19th century.
• Function remains debated: possibly a council chamber where the king met advisers (as suggested by Mackenzie’s maps).
• Architecturally significant for combining:
• Traditional local designs.
• Indo-Islamic features like arches and domes.
• Structure had nine towers (a central large one + eight smaller corner ones).

The Elephant Stables

• A row of domed chambers, possibly for housing royal elephants.
• Close to Lotus Mahal, suggesting they were part of the royal service zone.
• However, historians debate their real function – may also have been used for ceremonial or storage purposes.

The Hazara Rama Temple

• Unique temple likely reserved for the royal family’s private worship.
• Central shrine’s images are missing, but sculpted panels survive.
• Wall panels depict:
• Scenes from the Ramayana.
• Courtly rituals, dancers, elephants, and horses, symbolizing power and culture.

Continuity of Traditions

• Though many Vijayanagara buildings were destroyed after the city’s fall (1565), nayakas (regional successors) carried forward the architectural traditions.
• Examples like the Madurai Nayaka palaces show the continuity of design and grandeur, keeping alive Vijayanagara’s legacy.

Key Takeaways for Retention

1. Royal Centre = blend of political, ceremonial, and religious structures.
2. Temples within royal precincts reinforced divine kingship.
3. Mahanavami Dibba = symbol of royal power and festivals but archaeologically puzzling.
4. Lotus Mahal & Elephant Stables show Indo-Islamic influence and multi-functional royal architecture.
5. Hazara Rama temple → exclusive royal family shrine with cultural depictions.
6. Nayakas continued traditions, preserving the Vijayanagara architectural style.

5. The Sacred Centre

5.1 Choosing a Capital

1. Geographical Location and Religious Associations
• The sacred centre was located in the rocky northern part of the city, along the banks of the Tungabhadra river.
• According to local traditions:
• These hills were believed to be the monkey kingdom of Vali and Sugriva from the Ramayana.
• The local goddess Pampadevi performed penance here to marry Virupaksha, the guardian deity of the Vijayanagara kingdom (a form of Shiva).
• Even today, the marriage of Virupaksha and Pampa is celebrated annually in the Virupaksha temple, showing the continuity of tradition.
• The area also contained Jaina temples dating to the pre-Vijayanagara period, making it a multi-religious sacred landscape.
2. Historical Legacy of Temple Building
• The region had a long tradition of temple construction, patronized by earlier dynasties such as the Pallavas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas, and Cholas.
• For rulers, temple building was a way to:
• Associate themselves with the divine.
• Gain legitimacy, since the deity was often identified with the king himself.
• Establish temples as centres of learning, culture, economy, and religious activity.
• Temples received land grants, donations, and patronage, making them hubs of social and cultural life.
3. Reasons for Choosing Vijayanagara as Capital
• Likely inspired by the sacred presence of Virupaksha and Pampadevi shrines.
• The rulers of Vijayanagara claimed to govern as representatives of Virupaksha.
• Royal orders were signed in the name of “Shri Virupaksha” (often in Kannada script).
• They also adopted the title “Hindu Suratrana”:
• A Sanskritised version of the Arabic word Sultan (meaning king).
• Symbolised that Vijayanagara kings were powerful Hindu rulers equal to Islamic sovereigns.
4. Royal Innovations in Temple Rituals
• Rulers not only continued older traditions but also introduced innovations:
• Royal portraits were displayed in temples, reinforcing the king’s divinity and authority.
• The king’s visits to temples became state occasions, accompanied by nayakas (chieftains), highlighting royal prestige and political unity.

5.2 Gopurams and Mandapas

1. New Architectural Features in Temples
• By the Vijayanagara period, temples displayed new monumental elements:
• Raya Gopurams (royal gateways):
• Towering gateways, often larger than the main shrine tower, visible from afar.
• Symbolised the power and authority of the king, since only rulers could mobilise the resources and skilled artisans for such construction.
• Mandapas (pavilions) and pillared corridors:
• Spacious halls for rituals, festivals, performances, and gatherings.
• Surrounding shrines within the temple complex, enhancing grandeur.
2. The Virupaksha Temple
• One of the most important temples, dedicated to Virupaksha (Shiva).
• Origins: Earliest shrine built in the 9th–10th centuries, much before Vijayanagara.
• Expansion under Vijayanagara rulers:
• Substantial additions made after the city became the capital.
• Krishnadeva Raya (r. 1509–1529):
• Built a mandapa (hall) in front of the shrine at his accession.
• Decorated with intricately carved pillars.
• Added the eastern gopuram, making the complex more majestic.
• Over time, the central shrine became only a small part of the much larger complex.
• Functions of Halls and Pavilions:
• Hosted music, dance, drama performances before the deity.
• Celebrated marriage rituals of deities (kalyana mandapa).
• Spaces for deities to be placed on swings (dolotsava).
• Used special festival images different from the permanent shrine idols.
3. The Vitthala Temple
• Dedicated to Vitthala, a form of Vishnu popular in Maharashtra.
• Its presence in Karnataka shows the cultural integration under Vijayanagara rulers.
• Architectural features:
• Several mandapas and pillared halls.
• A unique stone chariot shrine, symbolising divine movement and grandeur.
• Chariot streets:
• Broad, stone-paved roads extending from the gopuram.
• Lined with pillared pavilions used by merchants during festivals.
• Allowed processions of temple chariots during religious ceremonies.
4. Role of Nayakas in Temple Architecture
• Even after the fall of Vijayanagara in 1565, local nayakas (chieftains) continued the tradition of temple building.
• They expanded and elaborated upon earlier Vijayanagara designs.
• Many spectacular gopurams built in this period (e.g., at Madurai) are attributed to the nayakas.

🔑 Key Takeaways for Retention

• Sacred legitimacy was central to Vijayanagara kingship – ruling “on behalf of Virupaksha.”
• Temples = power symbols, functioning as cultural, social, and economic hubs.
• Virupaksha temple = local and dynastic centre of devotion and authority.
• Vitthala temple = symbol of imperial cosmopolitanism, drawing from regional traditions.
• Architectural innovations: towering gopurams, richly carved mandapas, pillared corridors, and temple streets.
• Nayakas preserved Vijayanagara legacy even after empire’s fall.

6. Plotting Palaces, Temples and Bazaars

6.1 Documenting Vijayanagara: The Process of Discovery

1. Early Surveys
• Initial information came from surveys by Colin Mackenzie in the early 19th century.
• Later, accounts of foreign travellers and epigraphic evidence (inscriptions) were combined to reconstruct the city’s history.
2. 20th Century Preservation
• The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and the Karnataka Department of Archaeology and Museums took measures to conserve the site.
• In 1976, Hampi (the ruins of Vijayanagara) was officially recognised as a site of national importance.
3. Comprehensive Documentation Project (1980s onwards)
• A major international project began in the early 1980s.
• Aim: To document in detail the material remains of Vijayanagara through extensive and intensive surveys.
• Method: Use of varied recording techniques, mapping, photography, elevations, and detailed plans.
• Scale: This effort continued for nearly two decades, involving dozens of scholars worldwide.
• Contribution: A large and systematic archive of maps, photographs, drawings, and measured surveys of Vijayanagara’s ruins.

6.2 Mapping the City: Method and Findings

1. Division of the Site
• The entire site was divided into 25 large squares, each labelled with a letter of the alphabet (except one letter, for clarity).
• Each large square was further subdivided into smaller squares, and then again into still smaller units for detailed analysis.
2. What Was Recovered
• Thousands of structures identified: ranging from tiny shrines and houses to grand temples and palaces.
• Traces of infrastructure discovered: roads, streets, pathways, market areas, and open courtyards.
• Evidence of bazaars was identified through remains of pillar bases, stone platforms, and linear arrangements of shops.
3. Interpretative Challenges
• Scholars like John M. Fritz, George Michell, and M.S. Nagaraja Rao emphasised that many wooden elements (columns, beams, ceilings, decorated brackets, and painted plaster) had decayed.
• This means that what survives in stone is only a partial picture of the once vibrant city.
• Historians must therefore reconstruct the city’s life imaginatively, using traveller descriptions alongside archaeological remains.

6.3 The Bazaars of Vijayanagara

1. Paes’ Description of the Market
• The city had broad and well-planned streets lined with shops and merchant houses.
• Markets sold an extraordinary variety of goods:
• Precious stones: rubies, diamonds, emeralds, pearls.
• Luxury items: cloths of fine quality, seed-pearls.
• Everyday goods: fruits, vegetables, firewood, and garden produce.
• A daily fair was held where horses and livestock were sold.
2. Abundant Provisions (Paes’ view)
• Paes described Vijayanagara as “the best-provided city in the world.”
• Markets stocked with rice, wheat, pulses (moong, horse gram), barley, beans, and Indian corn, all sold cheaply and abundantly.
3. Nuniz’s Observations
• Nuniz highlighted the abundance of fruits like grapes, oranges, limes, pomegranates, jackfruit, and mangoes.
• He also described the variety of meat available:
• Mutton, pork, venison, and several kinds of birds.
• Surprisingly, even unusual meats like sparrows, rats, cats, and lizards were part of the food market.
4. Cultural and Economic Significance of Bazaars
• Bazaars were not just trading centres but also reflected the cosmopolitan and prosperous economy of Vijayanagara.
• They connected the city to long-distance trade networks (for gems and horses) while also serving as centres for local consumption of grains, fruits, and meats.
• The abundance and diversity of goods symbolised both imperial prosperity and urban vibrancy.

✅ Key Takeaways for Retention

• Vijayanagara was studied and preserved through modern archaeological mapping and surveys.
• Mapping revealed layers of the city: palaces, temples, shrines, bazaars, and streets.
• Although wooden structures have vanished, stone remains and traveller accounts allow reconstruction of its splendour.
• The bazaars reflected economic prosperity, trade networks, and cultural diversity.

7. Questions in Search of Answers

Buildings are not just static structures; they are repositories of information about the societies that built and used them. By studying the surviving monuments of Vijayanagara, historians and archaeologists can ask questions about construction techniques, cultural influences, and social life. However, many aspects remain elusive, prompting further inquiry.

7.1 Insights from Surviving Buildings

1. Organisation of Space
• Surviving structures provide clues about how urban spaces were arranged, including palaces, temples, streets, and markets.
• Study of layouts can help us understand functional zoning, e.g., royal centre, sacred centre, and bazaars.
2. Construction Techniques and Materials
• Analysis of surviving walls, pillars, gopurams, and platforms allows us to infer materials used, like stone, brick, and wood.
• Architectural features reflect engineering skills and technical knowledge of masons and craftsmen.
3. Defence and Military Preparedness
• Fortifications, walls, and watchtowers indicate the defensive needs of the city.
• The scale and complexity of fortifications hint at the military strategies and preparedness of the rulers.
4. Cultural and Symbolic Significance
• Buildings convey ideas and messages that patrons or rulers wanted to project, such as power, prestige, or piety.
• Architectural symbols reflect cultural values, religious beliefs, and artistic trends.
• Comparative study with other regions shows the spread of architectural and artistic influences.
5. Integrating Multiple Sources
• Buildings alone cannot provide complete understanding.
• Combining evidence from literature, inscriptions, travellers’ accounts, and local traditions helps decode symbolism and social significance.

7.2 Perspective and Representation

1. Royal Imagery
• Statues, reliefs, and portraits, like that of Krishnadeva Raya at Chidambaram, show how rulers wanted to be seen: powerful, divine, and commanding.
• Paes described Krishnadeva Raya physically:
• Medium height, fair complexion, robust figure, with smallpox scars.
• Such representations reflect official perspectives rather than everyday life.
2. Limitations of Architectural Evidence
• Surviving monuments rarely reveal how ordinary people experienced them.
• Questions arise:
• Did common people have access to the royal or sacred centres?
• How did they perceive sculptures and symbols—did they pause to reflect, or hurry past?
• What were the thoughts of labourers, artisans, and craftsmen contributing to these massive projects?

7.3 Questions About Construction

1. Decision-making and Planning
• Who decided:
• Which buildings to construct
• Which sites to choose
• Materials and styles to use
• Rulers held ultimate authority, but construction relied on specialised knowledge.
2. Role of Craftsmen and Labourers
• Who created the plans and designs? Architects or master masons?
• Were masons, stonecutters, and sculptors local, or brought from other regions?
• Were some captured during wars or recruited voluntarily?
• What wages, incentives, or status did the workers receive?
3. Supervision and Logistics
• Who supervised construction?
• How was building material transported, and from where?
• What were the challenges in executing such large-scale projects?
4. Need for Further Research
• Surviving buildings provide partial answers.
• Understanding requires integrating archaeological data, inscriptions, travellers’ narratives, and experimental archaeology.

7.4 Example: Queen’s Bath

• The Queen’s Bath illustrates both functional and aesthetic aspects of royal architecture.
• Its design raises further questions:
• Who used it, and under what circumstances?
• How were water supply and drainage managed?
• What does it reveal about royal leisure, gender, and privacy?

Key Takeaways

• Buildings are historical sources that reveal technical, cultural, and symbolic knowledge.
• They primarily reflect the rulers’ perspectives, leaving the voices of ordinary people largely unheard.
• Architectural study must be combined with other sources to answer deeper questions about society, labour, and culture.
• Many questions about Vijayanagara’s construction, labour, and usage remain open for future research.

Timeline 1

MAJOR POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

• 1206 – Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate
  Qutb-ud-din Aibak becomes the first Sultan of Delhi, marking the beginning of Muslim rule in northern India.
• 1336? – Establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire
  Founded in southern India, the empire is established by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, becoming a major Hindu kingdom resisting northern Sultanates. (Date approximate)
• 1347 – Establishment of the Bahmani Kingdom
  Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah establishes the Bahmani Sultanate in the Deccan, which later fractures into five smaller Sultanates.
• 14th–15th century – Emergence of regional Sultanates
• Sultanates arise in Jaunpur, Kashmir, and Madura, reflecting the decentralisation of power in different regions.
• 1435 – Establishment of the Gajapati Kingdom of Orissa
  Kapilendra Deva consolidates power in eastern India, extending influence over parts of southern India.
• 15th century – Formation of western and Deccan Sultanates
• Gujarat and Malwa Sultanates in western India
• Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, and Berar Sultanates in the Deccan (emerged by 1490)
• 1510 – Conquest of Goa by the Portuguese
  Portuguese establish a colonial foothold on the western coast of India, marking the beginning of European influence.
• 1518 – Collapse of the Bahmani Kingdom and emergence of the Golconda Sultanate
  The fragmentation of the Bahmani state leads to the rise of smaller, independent Deccan Sultanates.
• 1526 – Establishment of the Mughal Empire by Babur
  Babur defeats Ibrahim Lodi at the Battle of Panipat, initiating the Mughal dynasty in northern India.

Timeline 2

LANDMARKS IN THE DISCOVERY AND CONSERVATION OF VIJAYANAGARA

• 1800 – Colin Mackenzie visits Vijayanagara
  The British surveyor and first Surveyor General of India records the ruins and maps the site, initiating modern studies.
• 1856 – Alexander Greenlaw photographs Hampi
  First detailed photographic documentation of Vijayanagara’s architectural and sculptural remains.
• 1876 – J.F. Fleet documents inscriptions
  Fleet begins transcribing and studying temple inscriptions, contributing to the understanding of Vijayanagara’s political and cultural history.
• 1902 – Conservation begins under John Marshall
  The Archaeological Survey of India undertakes systematic preservation and restoration of monuments at Hampi.
• 1976 – Hampi recognised as a site of national importance
  Government of India designates Hampi as an important archaeological and historical site, ensuring protection.
• 1986 – Hampi declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site
  Recognised for its outstanding cultural value, Hampi becomes part of the global heritage conservation programme.